Russian Empire

The empire was governed by strict class distinctions: forms of address ("Your Excellency," "Your Honor"—depending on rank), mandatory balls and outings for the nobility, passes for travel within the country, and censorship regulations for the press. Theater seats and train carriages were divided by class and ticket category.

Peter I forcibly introduced European dress: decrees prohibited boyars from wearing beards (bearded men were subject to a tax) and old-fashioned clothing; nobles were required to wear Hungarian caftans, then French and German clothing.

In the 18th century, the court dressed in French fashion: men's waistcoats, powdered wigs; women's dresses with corsets, low necklines, and high "rococo" hairstyles. Interestingly, under Catherine II, household decrees directly regulated what courtiers wore. The first half of the 19th century saw the Empire style after the War of 1812, with light, antiqued dresses and the uniform as the primary men's attire. The uniform was more than just a uniform: its color and trim indicated rank and office.

The second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw "dandyism," with tuxedos and top hats for men; women wore full crinolines, then the hourglass silhouette with a bustle. The common people retained traditional dress: kosovorotka shirts, sarafans, and caftans. Urban fashion reached the peasantry slowly, through the introduction of "urban" festive attire.

The Cathedral Code of 1649 remained in force until the 19th century as the basis of law.
The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (1832) was codified under the direction of M. M. Speransky; it came into force in 1835. It was the main collection of current regulations.
The Penal Code (1845) was the criminal code. The judicial reform of Alexander II (1864) introduced jury trials, public courts, and the legal profession. Previously, the courts had been class-based and secret.
The Peasant Reform of 1861 abolished serfdom, the most significant change of the entire period.

Hierarchy of society
Estates were the fundamental principle of social division. Estate membership determined rights, responsibilities, and even clothing.

The nobility was a privileged class. It was divided into hereditary (passed down by inheritance) and personal (for life only). They were exempt from corporal punishment, poll tax, and compulsory service (Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility, 1762).
The clergy—white (parish priests) and black (monastics)—had special courts and were exempt from taxes.
The city's inhabitants were merchants (from 1775 they were divided into guilds: 1st, 2nd and 3rd by capital), townspeople (small traders, artisans), and honorary citizens (appeared in 1832).
Peasants were the most numerous group: landowners (serfs until 1861), state peasants, and appanage peasants. They paid taxes and were subject to conscription.
Foreigners and Cossacks had a special status.