Maximilian of Mexico

Maximilian of Habsburg-Lorraine (born Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph Maria, Vienna, 6 July 1832 – Santiago de Querétaro, 19 June 1867) was the sole monarch of the Second Mexican Empire (1863–1867). He was the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. After a distinguished career in the Austrian navy, he accepted an offer from Napoleon III of France to ascend the Mexican throne. The French had invaded Mexico in the winter of 1861 as part of an international armed intervention. Seeking to legitimize his dominance over parts of the Americas, Napoleon III invited Maximilian to assume the Mexican throne. He was supported by the French army and by Mexican conservatives who were dissatisfied with the liberal administration of President Benito Juárez. Maximilian declared himself Emperor of Mexico on 10 April 1864. Emperor of Mexico Reign April 10, 1864 May 15, 1867 Predecessor Augustine I (deposed in 1823) Successor Monarchy abolished Viceroy of Lombardy-Veneto Reign September 6, 1857 April 10, 1859 Predecessor Josef Radetzky Successor Ferencz Gyulai Imperial Prince of Austria Reign December 2, 1848 on August 21, 1858 Predecessor Francisco Carlos Successor Rudolph Francisco

Birth July 6, 1832

Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria Death June 19, 1867 (age 34)

Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico Buried in Imperial Crypt, Vienna, Austria Full name

in German: Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria von Austria in Spanish: Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph Mary of Habsburg-Lorraine in Portuguese: Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph Maria of Habsburg-Lorraine Wife Charlotte of Belgium Offspring Agustin (adoptive) Savior (adoptive) Home Habsburg-Lorraine Father Franz Charles of Austria Mother Sophia of Bavaria

The new Mexican Empire quickly gained recognition from some of the major European powers, such as Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The United States, however, continued to recognize Benito Juárez as the legitimate president of Mexico. Facing enormous resistance from Republican forces loyal to Juárez, Maximilian was never able to consolidate his power throughout Mexico. With the end of the American Civil War in 1865, the United States began to provide direct and substantial support to President Juárez and his subordinates. The Americans looked very favorably on any European intervention in the affairs of the American continent and considered Mexico a vital part of their sphere of influence in the region. This considerably worsened Maximilian I's position, and the situation began to become untenable after 1866, when French troops began to withdraw from Mexico. His self-proclaimed empire quickly declined, and with no further support from within or without, he was captured and executed by forces of the Mexican Republican government in 1867. His wife, Carlota of Belgium, managed to flee to Europe in order to garner support for her husband's regime, but without any success; after Maximilian's execution, she suffered a mental breakdown.

Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph of Habsburg-Lorraine was born at Schönbrunn Palace, in the Austrian capital. He was the second son of Archduke Franz Charles and Princess Sophia of Bavaria. However, it is rumored that Maximilian was actually the biological son of Napoleon II (died 1832), son of Napoleon Bonaparte and his second wife, Maria Luisa of Austria. Sofia and Napoleon II, titled Duke of Reichstadt, had an intimate friendship that provoked rumors at court, which the Archduchess never bothered to deny. When she became pregnant for the second time, Napoleon II died of tuberculosis. In Trieste, Maximilian was a sailor for several years, living for a long time on the high seas; he collaborated in the triumph of his nation in the war against Italy. Having met Princess D. Maria Amélia de Bragança, daughter of D. Pedro I of Brazil (IV of Portugal) and D. Amélia de Leuchtenberg, he would have planned a marriage, but D. Maria Amélia died prematurely on Madeira Island, in 1853. Mourning this loss, Maximilian began to wear a ring containing a lock of the late princess's hair. On July 27, 1857, Maximilian married Charlotte of Belgium, the only daughter of King Leopold I of Belgium. The marriage, however, only occurred for economic interests, as he urgently needed money to pay his debts from the construction of Miramare Castle in Trieste, on the Adriatic coast. To do this, he used Carlota's dowry. Leopold I pressured Emperor Franz Joseph I, his son-in-law's brother, to grant Maximilian the position of viceroy of the Lombard-Venetian Kingdom. Then he would complete his dynastic ambitions for his daughter. They then lived in the city of Milan until 1859, when the emperor removed him from his post because the war plans were not in line with Maximilian's liberal ideals. Little by little, Austria-Hungary lost its possessions in Italy, and the archduke decided to retire from public life in his castle at Miramare.

In 1859, Maximilian was approached by Mexican monarchists to claim the country's throne. Since the House of Habsburg had already ruled the country through the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Maximilian would thus have the legitimacy to become the monarch of Mexico. He initially refused, but when France managed to invade and occupy large parts of Mexico, Maximilian decided to reconsider. In the end, he was persuaded by the French Emperor Napoleon III and accepted the request of the Mexican royalists to accept the crown of the newly founded Mexican Empire (1864-1867). "It is difficult to imagine today how much Mexico fascinated Europe in the mid-19th century. In those years of unusual optimism and audacity, intellectuals were already studying the Mayans and the Aztecs, their mysterious writing and their enigmatic monuments. (…) The French began to imagine a kind of domino effect: after Mexico, there would be a model to be followed by almost all the former colonies that had become republics in the Americas. In this way, it would be possible to “civilize and monarchize” those States, in the words of Empress Eugenie, who already saw in the region a place to install thrones for the numerous European nobility and its excess of princes. Thus arose in the French Empire the project of creating a great Catholic monarchy in Mexico, as powerful as the Protestant Republic of the United States. Left free, the project became a dream, and the dream was lost in the exaggeration. Due to misinformation or passion for the project itself, Napoleon III decided to propose to Austria that Archduke Maximilian, brother of the country's emperor, be brought to the throne in Mexico. What followed was the occupation of Mexico by France, in a fight that immediately resulted in a thousand casualties in the invading army. (…) The French discovered that Mexico had an army and a people who, contrary to the palatial talk in Paris, were not waiting for a savior nor would they rise up against one of their own.

To save the French national honor, however, it was necessary to stay in the former colony and go all the way. The arrival of reinforcements made possible the difficult European advance until the capture of Mexico City in June 1863. "The Adventure of Maximilian of Habsburg - as it was called in Mexico - was nothing more than a sad episode of vested interests, naivety and desperation. The conservatives saw in his person the possibility of maintaining a political system that was comfortable for them and that seemed safe to them because he had the support of France, England and the Holy See. The Austrian archduke, in turn, in a certain way condemned to always be the brother of the Emperor of Austria, accepted the role that he was offered to play in a country completely unknown to him and submerged in a deep political crisis. In the midst of the crisis and the countless conflicts, he turned to his first cousin, Emperor Pedro II of Brazil: "The dream of Archduke Maximilian, suddenly thrown into the position of Emperor of Mexico, included Dom Pedro II and a powerful alliance with Brazil. But it never came close to being realized. In just three years, it collapsed and turned into a tragedy. (…) Four years earlier, Maximilian had met personally with D. Pedro II. On a trip to South America, he had been received by princesses Isabel and Leopoldina in Petrópolis, and then headed to Espírito Santo to see the emperor. A lover of botany and zoology, he took advantage of the trip to explore tropical nature. It is said that he took specimens of birds, insects and plants for his private collection. But now the good life was over. At the head of the Mexican Empire, pressured from all sides, he was quick to write to his Brazilian cousin. The letters alternated between formal comments and personal messages. They reveal the strategies used by the Mexican emperor to get closer to Brazil. Calling his Brazilian cousin “brother”, Maximilian did not spare praise for the government which, according to him, “awakens the envy of the New World”.

and evokes possible affinities between their empires: “I have been thinking about the similarities that reign between our two countries and all my desire is to follow the path laid out by Your Majesty to obtain good results”. In his eagerness to create economic and diplomatic ties with Brazil, Maximilian decorated D. Pedro II with the Collar of the Mexican Eagle, of the Order of the Grand Crosses. This award had previously only been granted to the sovereigns of Austria and Russia. In return, the Brazilian emperor decorated Empress Carlota with the insignia of the Imperial Order. The Brazilian press, however, solemnly ignored the diplomatic gesture: the newspapers did not record any mention of the exchange of medals. A personal project of Maximilian also justified his attacks. The emperor wanted to consolidate the hegemony of two great Habsburg empires in America, recovering the prestige of the dynasty. To this end, he intended to marry his brother, Archduke Luis Victor, to Pedro II's eldest daughter, Princess Isabel, heir to the throne of Brazil. Once again, Maximilian's plans failed. The Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph learned of the plan and did not consider it a good deal. He was more interested in the dynasty's European future and pressured Luis Victor to give up. Even after several attempts at rapprochement, Brazil had not yet officially recognized the Empire of Mexico by the beginning of 1865. Maximilian then changed his strategy: he began to invest in sending diplomats to Brazil. The diplomatic representation in Rio de Janeiro began to have the same importance as those in Vienna, Brussels, Paris and Rome. D. Pedro Escandón, a lawyer and commercial agent and the son of one of the richest families in Mexico, was appointed to defend Mexican interests in Brazil. Upon his arrival in January 1865, Escandón soon noticed D. Pedro II's lack of enthusiasm and the cynical contempt that the press had for the Mexican Empire. But the winds seemed to announce the weather

Upon arriving in January 1865, Escandón soon noticed D. Pedro II's lack of enthusiasm and the cynical contempt that the press devoted to the Mexican Empire. But the winds seemed to herald better times. The following month, Escandón was received by the Emperor of Brazil at the São Cristóvão Palace, in a public audience and with all the pomp. Confident that this recognition by Pedro II would serve as the basis for an alliance of interests between the American empires, Escandón spoke enthusiastically, saying that it was necessary to “preserve unalterably the precious relations that must always exist between two brotherly peoples, identified in origin , race, beliefs and government, speaking different languages, but understanding each other easily, because cordiality expresses their thoughts and sympathies”. Pedro II limited himself to thanking the proof of friendship of his “brother and cousin, the emperor of Mexico”. After the hearing, Escandón still tried to conclude a trade treaty with the Southern Empire, and proposed that a Brazilian representative be sent to Mexico. All he got, however, were evasive answers." Due to his liberal tendencies, Maximiliano soon lost the support of the conservatives. He was the target of hostility from Benito Juárez's followers, the Republicans, when he ordered the summary execution of their leaders (1865 ). Maximilian's only protection was the presence of French troops.

With the end of the American Civil War, the United States government began to pressure France to withdraw from Mexico. In 1866, French forces began to evacuate, and Napoleon III advised Maximilian I to abdicate and flee, which he refused. Maximilian found himself in an increasingly precarious position. However, despite having no internal or external support, he personally took command of his soldiers and attempted to resist, but he was unable to turn the tide of the conflict against the Republicans. After a siege in Santiago de Querétaro, he was captured, imprisoned, tried by a court martial, and shot along with his generals Tomás Mejía and Miguel Miramón. After his death, the claim to the Mexican throne was claimed by two separate branches. The Habsburg-Iturbide, adopted by the grandsons of the first emperor of Mexico, Agustín de Itúrbide, and another branch, the Habsburg-Gueroust. Maximilian I ruled Mexico for less than four years from Chapultepec Castle. He attempted to implement liberal policies, which alienated his conservative support base. He tried to finance housing for the poor, forgave peasants' debts, reduced the working day, and also banned child labor. Despite his attempts to implement populist reforms, he was never popular with the Mexican people, and many celebrated his death, especially republicans. His assessment by historians is controversial, with some praising him for his reforms and others condemning him as an ineffective politician.

Soon after his execution, the event was immortalized by Manet, who had followed the entire adventure and misadventure of this Habsburg in North America. The news of Maximilian's shooting had barely reached Paris when Édouard Manet, whose previous works had already provoked much discussion in French society, he sets to work on the event. A staunch republican, contrary to the ambitious policy of Napoleon III, who had yet another failure in Mexico, the painter produced, between 1867 and 1869, three paintings on a monumental scale, an oil sketch and a lithograph depicting the execution. Made based on written reports, engravings and photographs about the event as they arrived in France, escaping government censorship, the series shows an evolution in the way Manet pictorially narrates the costumes. In the first oil, the soldiers of the execution squad wear Mexican guerrilla uniforms, while from the second painting onwards the painter changes the uniforms so that they resemble those of the French army, underlining his criticism of his country's government. The emperor wears a hat Mexican, like the one in the photograph taken a few months before the execution by an unidentified photographer. In the final painting, the largest and definitive work, Manet adds a landscape in the background, with spectators that he took from “Bullfighting”, one of his previous paintings.(…)Lithography was banned by the authorities and the paintings were never exhibited in Paris during the painter's lifetime. They are still preserved today in foreign museums (Boston, London, Copenhagen and Mannheim/Germany)."