[RPG] Bosnian War (1992)

Capital region

Sarajevo. In April 1992, Bosnian Serb forces (VRS) and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) encircled the capital. The longest siege in 20th-century military history (1,425 days) began. Fierce street battles raged throughout the spring and summer, capturing the Grbavica, Dobrinja, and Stup neighborhoods. The Serbs occupied the heights, shelling the city with artillery, while Bosnian government forces (ARBiH) held the center, launching constant counterattacks.

Posavina (Northern Bosnia): The Battle for the "Corridor of Life"

A strategic region where Croats and Bosniaks tried to cut off Serbian lands from Serbia.
Brod (Bosanski Brod) became a staging area for the regular Croatian Army (HV). Large-scale fighting took place here in March and April. The Croats turned the city into a fortified area, but in October 1992, during the Serbian tank operation "Corridor 92," after intense assaults, the city fell under Serbian control.
Derventa. Held by the Croats (HVO) in the spring, it suffered heavily from shelling. In July, Serbian armored vehicles broke through the defenses, and after bloody urban fighting, Derventa was captured by the VRS, providing the Serbs with a through land corridor.

Drina Valley (Eastern Bosnia): Border Clearing

Zvornik. In April, the city was stormed by Serbian volunteers (Arkan units), supported by JNA artillery. After intense gunfire, the Bosniak forces were driven out of the city within a few days.
Srebrenica. In May, Naser Orić's Bosnian rebels counterattacked and drove the Serbs out of the city. Srebrenica became an isolated Muslim enclave, methodically besieged by Serbian artillery.

Herzegovina (South) and Bosnian Krajina (Northwest)

Mostar. In the spring, joint Croat and Bosniak forces fought against the JNA. In June, during Operation June Dawn, they drove the Serbs out of the eastern part of the city. Mostar was heavily damaged, and by the end of the year, the former allies (Croats and Bosniaks) began to build barricades against each other.
Prijedor. In May, the Serbs took control of the city. The Bosnians attempted to retake it by storm.

Olive drab uniform and M89 camouflage: The majority of tank crews and attached infantry wore the standard single-color olive drab uniform of the JNA (SMB). The most combat-ready crews received the new M89 "Dubrava" camouflage (the Yugoslav equivalent of "Woodland"). Heavy parkas with fur collars were widely worn during the winter and spring of 1992.
Tank helmets and protection: Crews wore Soviet summer and winter TSh-3/TSh-4 fabric helmets with built-in laryngeal microphones. Tank crews practically lacked body armor due to the cramped conditions inside the vehicles, but the attached motorized infantry used Yugoslav Borovo body armor or captured Croatian models. Infantrymen wore M59/85 steel helmets.

M-84 and T-55 tanks: The 1st Brigade's calling card was the M-84 tank (a Yugoslav-made, highly modernized version of the T-72A with an advanced fire control system and laser rangefinder). They were superior to anything their opponents had. The 2nd Brigade relied primarily on older, but reliable, Soviet T-55s, which were used as assault guns to suppress enemy fire.
BMP and BTR: To support the infantry, the brigade used BVP M-80A infantry fighting vehicles (the Yugoslav equivalent of the BMP-1, but with a 20mm cannon) and BOV-VP wheeled armored personnel carriers.
The T-55 has manual loading and a loader, while the M-84 has a manual loading system and no loader.

Zastava M70 assault rifles: The personal weapons of tank crews and infantry were the Yugoslav Zastava M70 assault rifles (a licensed copy of the AKM chambered for 7.62x39 mm) with a fixed or folding metal butt (M70AV2).
Pistols and machine guns: For personal defense, crews carried Zastava M57 pistols (a TT copy) or M70 pistols (chambered for 7.65 mm). Armored vehicles were armed with Soviet NSVT Utes and PKT anti-aircraft and twin machine guns.

Self-propelled guns and MLRS: The brigades had their own self-propelled howitzers 2S1 "Gvozdika" (122 mm) and multiple launch rocket systems M-77 "Ogan" (128 mm)

Armored ramming (assault wedge): Unlike the Croatian side, which used tanks in small groups, the Serbian brigades practiced massed attacks. M-84 tanks formed battle lines and stormed fortified enemy positions in a powerful force, supported by M-80A infantry fighting vehicles. This demoralized the poorly armed Muslim and Croat infantry, forcing them to retreat before direct fire contact.
Fire Barrage (Artillery Concentration): Tank advances were always preceded by a massive artillery barrage. Armed with a huge supply of JNA shells, Serbian brigades used their 2S1 Gvozdika self-propelled guns and Oganj multiple rocket launchers to methodically scorch the enemy's forward defenses. Tanks advanced only after Croatian resistance pockets had been completely suppressed by artillery.
Rapid raids along roads: Given the wooded and marshy terrain of Posavina and the lack of a continuous front line, the brigades avoided protracted battles in the rugged terrain. Tank columns broke through at top speed along key roads, cutting off enemy communications and reaching the enemy's rear, creating pockets.
"Tank Hunting" from Ambush: During defensive operations (especially the 2nd Brigade with T-55s), the Serbs employed tank ambush tactics. The vehicles were carefully camouflaged in caseniers or among ruined buildings in the suburbs. Using night vision goggles, the tank crews brought the advancing Croatian columns within point-blank range and fired on them point-blank.

The tank brigades' main problem was a critical shortage of motorized infantry to consolidate cleared areas. M-84 tanks often broke through defenses and advanced far ahead, but the light Serbian militia following behind them failed to take up positions in time. Croats and Muslims flanked and reared the Serbian tank crews, setting ambushes with RPGs, which resulted in unnecessary losses of armored vehicles.

M89 "Dubrava" camouflage: Unlike most regular VRS units, the Guardsmen were almost exclusively dressed in the relatively new Yugoslav M89 camouflage. Officers' dress and everyday uniforms were complemented by special Guards insignia on their berets. On their left sleeves, soldiers wore a patch with the Serbian tricolor and the inscription "Garda."
Body armor and equipment: Guardsmen were equipped with Yugoslav-made tactical vests and M59/85 protective helmets. The brigade's infantry units were supplied with Borovo army-issue body armor with steel plates. High-quality footwear (high combat boots) and thick winter parkas were supplied directly from the warehouses of the former Yugoslav People's Army.

Zastava M70 and M72 assault rifles: The Zastava M70B1 (with a wooden stock) and M70AB2 (with a folding stock) assault rifles in 7.62x39mm caliber were used. Support squads were equipped with Zastava M72 light machine guns (similar to the RPK).
Sniper weapons: Guard snipers actively used Zastava M76 rifles (chambered for the powerful 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge) with ZRAK optics, which surpassed the standard Soviet SVD in terms of accuracy at medium ranges.
Heavy machine guns and grenade launchers: The infantry had Zastava M84 machine guns (a PKM copy) and large-caliber NSV Utes machine guns. For anti-vehicle use, they used disposable 64mm M80 Zolya grenade launchers and heavy 90mm M79 Osa RPGs.

APCs and armored vehicles: BOV-VP wheeled armored personnel carriers (military police) and Yugoslav-designed M-60P tracked vehicles. The brigade also had BRDM-2 reconnaissance armored vehicles.
Artillery Support: The brigade had a powerful anti-tank battalion armed with 76mm ZIS-3 guns and SO-76 Hellcat self-propelled guns (American World War II-era M18s, modernized in Yugoslavia). Fire support was provided by 82mm and 120mm mortars, as well as ZSU-57-2 self-propelled anti-aircraft guns and twin 30mm PRAT guns, which the Guards used against ground targets.

Shock maneuvering: The brigade rarely held a static front. Battalions were kept in the rear, constantly ready. When Muslim forces (ARBiH) breached the positions of regular Serbian units, the guardsmen were instantly deployed in armored personnel carriers and trucks. They launched a swift counterattack, closed the gap, and then withdrew back to reserve.
Mountain flanking and infiltration: Instead of frontal assaults on heights, the guardsmen employed small infantry group tactics. Soldiers stealthily outflanked the enemy through dense forests, reached the rear of fortified areas, and launched simultaneous attacks from several directions.
Night assaults: In 1992, most VRS units avoided fighting at night due to poor coordination. The Guards, thanks to their high discipline and training, purposefully used the night to block and silently capture enemy strongholds, catching them off guard.
Annihilating pillboxes with anti-aircraft fire: When storming fortified villages and brick buildings, the guardsmen made extensive use of twin 30mm BOV-3 and ZSU-57-2 cannons for direct fire against ground targets. The concentrated, large-caliber fire instantly destroyed wood and earth fortifications, replacing heavy artillery and allowing the infantry to advance without lengthy artillery preparation.
Counter-sabotage warfare: Due to the location of the VRS General Staff in the underground complex "Crna Rijeka" (Han Pijesak), an important tactical task for the brigade was hunting Muslim sabotage groups. Guardsmen set up deep ambushes on forest trails, conducted counter-sniper operations, and patrolled key passes autonomously.

The main weakness of the tactics was the lack of heavy tanks (M-84).

Heavy Greatcoats and Broadcloth of the JNA: The bulk of the fighters (at the beginning of the year, up to 80% were mobilized reservists) wore the standard olive-green uniform of the JNA (SMB). Due to the damp and cold spring of 1992, the heavy Yugoslav cloth M55 greatcoats and M75 jackets became the infantry's trademark. This gave the soldiers a look reminiscent of the army of previous decades.
Camouflage shortage: Only assault battalions and reconnaissance units received the new M89 "Dubrava" camouflage. Most infantrymen wore M59/85 steel helmets without covers, often with the red JNA stars worn off. Protective equipment (bulletproof vests) was rare and was issued only to BMP crews and military police.

Tank mix (T-55 and M-84): The 43rd Prijedor Brigade possessed enormous firepower for a regional unit—a full-fledged tank battalion. Its core consisted of Soviet T-55 tanks, which served as assault guns in the urban battles for Prijedor, as well as several advanced Yugoslav M-84 and T-72 tanks. In 1992, the 6th Sani Brigade had light infantry status and had virtually no heavy armor of its own, so during the fighting in the Corridor, it was reinforced by armor from the 43rd Brigade and the 1st Armored Brigade.
Infantry mobility: Troop movement was ensured by TAM-110 and TAM-150 trucks and Pinzgauer all-terrain vehicles. The 43rd Brigade's motorized infantry went into battle in Yugoslavian BVP M-80A tracked infantry fighting vehicles.

Personal weapon: The standard weapon was the Zastava M70 assault rifle chambered for 7.62x39mm. Due to the total mobilization of the 6th Sanya Brigade, the rear battalions were equipped with outdated Zastava M59/66 semi-automatic rifles (Yugoslav SKS).
Artillery Power: The 43rd Brigade had a powerful artillery battalion: Soviet D-30 howitzers (122mm), heavy American M114 howitzers (155mm), and M-46 guns (130mm), which literally ground to pieces the Croatian HVO positions in Posavina. When clearing trenches, the infantry made extensive use of 64mm M80 Zola disposable grenade launchers.

Fire Shield Tactics (Artillery Barrage): With colossal reserves of shells and heavy weapons (130mm M-46 and 155mm M114), the 43rd Brigade never threw infantry into assaulting unprepared positions. Advances were always preceded by multi-hour, sometimes multi-day, artillery barrages. With artillery fire, the Serbs literally leveled the forward trenches of the Croats (HVO) and Muslims (ARBiH), forcing the enemy to retreat under threat of complete annihilation.
Assaulting cities with armored groups: During the clearing of Prijedor and Kozarac in May-June 1992, the 43rd Brigade used T-55 tanks and M-80A infantry fighting vehicles as mobile firing points. The tanks moved through the streets under infantry cover, methodically firing directly at windows and basements from which fire was coming.
Linear front and positional defense: The 6th Sanska Brigade, initially less motorized and lacking equipment, relied on holding a rigid front line. Soldiers dug in tightly, creating echeloned systems of trenches, dugouts, and minefields that thwarted Croatian counterattacks in Posavina.
Wide flanking by massed infantry: With their vast mobilization resources (thousands of local men served in the brigades), these units could afford a protracted push-back tactic. While artillery and tanks pinned down the enemy from the front, the numerous infantry battalions of the 6th Brigade slowly but inexorably outflanked the enemy positions, threatening encirclement.

The main weaknesses of tactics

Low maneuverability and clumsiness: Due to the large rearguard and reliance on heavy artillery, the brigades operated slowly. They were unable to quickly respond to surprise Muslim guerrilla raids.
The psychology of reservists: Mobilized locals defended their homes well, but were reluctant to attack foreign regions. This led to a breakdown in discipline during long offensive operations far from their native Krajina.

Mismatched camouflage and black berets: In 1992, the Panthers had no uniform. Soldiers wore a mixture of JNA olive drab uniforms, M89 "Dubrava" camouflage, and even captured Croatian or imported commercial uniforms. The main distinguishing features were black berets with a guards' cockade and a patch depicting a crouching black panther on the sleeve.
Equipment: Tactical vests were hand-sewn in local workshops in Bijeljina from heavy canvas or repurposed from hunting vests. Protective gear (helmets and rare body armor) were obtained exclusively as trophies in combat.

Due to the lack of tanks and infantry fighting vehicles, the Panthers became famous for their improvised vehicle fleet, created by Captain Michel Ostojić:
Steel and conveyor rubber: Regular civilian trucks (TAM-110, TAM-150, FAP), tractors, and SUVs were covered with thick steel sheets. The key innovation was the use of thick rubber conveyor belts suspended over the steel—this rubber effectively dampened the cumulative jets from enemy anti-tank grenade launchers.
Firepower of the vehicles: The homemade armored vehicles were equipped with heavy weapons: twin 20-mm and 30-mm anti-aircraft guns, large-caliber DShK and Browning (M2) machine guns, as well as NURS (unguided rockets) pods taken from downed or damaged helicopters.

Machine guns and carbines: The primary weapon was the Zastava M70 assault rifle (all modifications). Owning captured assault rifles—German HK G3s or American M16s captured from the Croatians—was considered a special honor among the soldiers.
Machine guns and support: Squads were equipped with Zastava M72 light machine guns and Zastava M84 general-purpose machine guns. Yugoslavian 64mm M80 Zola disposable grenade launchers were widely used as Panther support weapons.

"Cavalry Charge" Tactics (Mobile Armored Columns): Instead of marching on foot, the brigade moved entirely on wheels. Forming columns of their renowned steel-and-rubber "gun trucks" with anti-aircraft guns and air-launched missile pods, the "Panthers" drove at top speed into gaps in the enemy's defenses (ARBiG or HVO). The speed of movement disoriented the enemy, who were unable to establish an anti-tank defense line.
Assaulting Cities with a "Firestorm": When lifting enclave sieges and storming fortified villages, the Panthers' tactics were based on suppressing the enemy with a colossal density of fire at close range. Improvised armored vehicles approached enemy fortifications and opened up with a barrage of direct fire from 20mm anti-aircraft guns and Browning machine guns. Under this cover, infantry assault groups instantly burst into trenches or buildings.
High-speed flanking maneuvers: Due to a shortage of heavy tracked vehicles (tanks), the Panthers avoided head-on engagements with prepared defenses heavily armed with artillery. Their favorite maneuver was a swift, deep envelopment of the enemy's flank along dirt roads, followed by a strike against headquarters and rear supply bases.
Psychological pressure: The appearance of Panthers on the front lines was always accompanied by a demonstrative use of their unique equipment. The roar of the engines of the steel-clad trucks and the salvoes of aircraft-mounted missiles (NURS) had a powerful demoralizing effect on poorly trained enemy soldiers in 1992, often causing them to flee before intense combat began.

The main vulnerability of tactics

The brigade's "gun trucks" and jeeps, despite their add-on armor and rubber, remained vulnerable to heavy artillery, anti-tank guns, and minefields.

A Mix of Frontline Camouflage Patterns: Like most reconnaissance units, the Wolves rejected the monotonous olive-green uniform of reservists. The unit's signature pattern in 1992 became a mix of captured Croatian M91 Kroko camouflage, Yugoslavian M89 Dubrava, and rare imported commercial patterns.
Wolf Berets: A symbol of pride and the main distinguishing feature of frontline fighters were light gray or camouflage berets (later black) with a round metal cockade, as well as patches with a snarling wolf's head on the sleeves. Veljko Milanković always wore the traditional Serbian headdress, the šajkača, which served as his helmet even in the most brutal battles.
Lightweight reconnaissance gear: Soldiers rarely wore body armor due to the nature of maneuverable sabotage operations, which required maximum mobility. Instead, they used custom-made chest vests (Yugoslavian "Chicom" vests for AK magazines).

Zastava M70B1/AV2 assault rifles: The standard personal weapon of the squad's assault troopers, chambered for 7.62x39mm. The "Wolves" preferred the folding-stock version (AV2) for ease of operation in forests and inside armored vehicles.
Bayonets and combat knives: A crucial element of their equipment. Unlike regular units, which used army bayonets only as prescribed, the "Wolves" attached them to their machine guns as standard. They made history in the history of the war thanks to their direct bayonet charges (for example, in the brutal battle for the village of Jakesh in June 1992 during Operation Corridor), which had a paralyzing psychological effect on the Croatians.
Zastava M84 machine guns: General-purpose machine guns (copies of the Soviet PKM) served as support weapons in assault groups. Due to their high firepower, they were used by the "Wolves" to set up ambushes on the forest roads of Posavina.

In early 1992, the unit had almost no heavy armor of its own, moving around in jeeps and trucks. However, during successful battles in Croatia and Posavina, the "Wolves" captured a wealth of enemy trophies, including two M-84 tanks and an armored personnel carrier.

Bayonet Charge and Close Combat: The "Wolves" made history in the Bosnian War as a unit that practiced direct bayonet charges. In the dense forests of Posavina and trench warfare (for example, during the assault on Jakesh Hill in June 1992), they would stealthily approach Croatian (HVO) positions and swiftly enter the trenches with bayonets at the ready. This broke the enemy's will and caused panic, forcing them to abandon their fortifications.
Deep infiltration and rear ambushes: As elite scouts, the "Wolves" masterfully exploited the forested terrain. Small groups of 10-15 men bypassed minefields and enemy defenses, penetrated several kilometers into the enemy's rear, and set up ambushes on supply routes. They destroyed command vehicles, blew up warehouses, and cut communication lines, paralyzing the Croatian defense even before the main assault began.
"Bait" Tactics: While conducting reconnaissance in force, a small group of "Wolves" would demonstratively attack the enemy's forward positions, then feign a panicked retreat. The pursuing enemy would form a column and advance directly into the dagger fire of concealed Zastava M84 machine guns and heavy grenade launchers from the main force.
Autonomous Night Operations: In 1992, when regular troops were resting overnight due to chaos and poor communications, the "Wolves" operated around the clock. At night, they eliminated sentries, cleared out enemy forward secrets, and captured "tongues," providing the corps command with accurate intelligence by morning.

Blue Suits and Camouflage: Pilots and navigators wore standard blue and gray-blue JNA flight suits made of dense, fire-resistant material. Technical and airfield personnel, as well as base security units, wore M89 "Dubrava" camouflage. Patches with the Serbian eagle and the inscription "RV i PVO VRS" were mandatory.
Helmets and protection: Attack aircraft pilots used ZSh-3 and ZSh-5 protective helmets (Soviet-made or Yugoslav-made licensed copies) with built-in oxygen masks. In case of an emergency landing behind enemy lines, pilots were equipped with emergency supplies, flares, and knives.

• J-21 Jastreb and J-22 Orao attack aircraft: The true strike force of the VRS in 1992 was the twin-engine tactical attack aircraft J-22 Orao (a joint development of Yugoslavia and Romania). They could carry up to 2.8 tons of bomb load. The older light attack aircraft J-21 Jastreb (based on the G-2 Galeb trainer) were also actively used.
The J-21 was without a flare, while the J-22 had a flare.
Helicopters: Soviet Mi-8T helicopters handled transport and supply duties. Light Yugoslav SA.341/342 Gazelle helicopters (in Gama variants), armed with Soviet 9M14M Malyutka guided missiles, were used for fire support and anti-tank warfare.

Aerial bombs and unguided rockets: Serbian aircraft struck Croatian and Bosnian positions with Soviet FAB-250 and FAB-500 high-explosive aerial bombs, as well as British-made BL755 cluster bombs (derived from the JNA). Unguided rockets (ULRs) of 57mm and 128mm calibers (Yugoslav "Munja") were widely used.
Personal weapons of pilots: For self-defense, pilots took compact Yugoslav submachine guns Zastava M84 "Škorpion" (a licensed copy of the Czechoslovakian Škorpion vz. 61 chambered for 7.65 mm) or Zastava CZ-99 pistols into flight.

Ultra-low altitudes ("Flying under radar"): Due to the Croatian forces' heavy armament of man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS Strela-2M and Igla) and anti-aircraft guns, Serbian J-22 Orao and J-21 Jastreb attack aircraft flew at extremely low altitudes—from 15 to 50 meters—hugging terrain and riverbeds. This allowed them to suddenly appear over enemy positions, strike, and escape before air defense crews could react.
Single-run strikes: When attacking fortified areas, bridges over the Sava River, or Croatian artillery positions, pilots practiced a "one-run, one-attack" tactic. Repeated passes were strictly prohibited, as by that point, enemy anti-aircraft artillery would already have opened barrage fire.
Nighttime transport helicopter raids: Mi-8 VRS helicopters served as nighttime resupply and evacuation vehicles. To avoid ground fire, flights to besieged Serbian areas were conducted exclusively in the dead of night, without the use of onboard lights. Pilots navigated by fires lit by local militias at secret landing sites.
Anti-tank hunting by Gazelle helicopters: Light SA.342 Gazelle (Gama) helicopters were used to hunt HVO and Croatian regular army armored vehicles in Posavina. They hovered behind treetops or hills, rose for a few seconds to launch a Malyutka anti-tank missile at a Croatian tank or infantry fighting vehicle, and then immediately descended back to the cover of the terrain.

The lack of precision-guided weapons on Serbian attack aircraft (they used conventional FAB-250/500 free-fall bombs and NURS) forced pilots to approach targets within visual range. This resulted in losses from Croatian heavy machine gun fire and MANPADS.

If {{user}} enters that military operations are taking place in October (after the 9th), then there will be no aviation, except for covert operations by helicopters.

Tanks: Along with the M-84, the Soviet T-55 and T-34-85 were widely used. Despite their age, the T-34 was actively used as a self-propelled gun emplacement to support infantry.
Infantry used M-80A infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) (with a 20mm cannon) and M-60P tracked armored personnel carriers (APCs). Wheeled BOV-VP armored personnel carriers were used for reconnaissance and police missions.
Improvisations: Due to a shortage of spare parts, the Serbs created unique vehicles. The armored train "Krajinsky Express" became legendary, as did trucks lined with steel sheets and armed with aircraft missiles or cannons.

Barrel artillery: The armament included 122-mm D-30 howitzers, 130-mm M-46 guns and powerful 152-mm D-20 howitzers (M-84 "Nora").
MLRS: Enemy positions were burned out using 128-mm M-63 Plamen and M-77 Oganj rocket systems.
Air defense: The VRS had fully operational Kub and Strela-10 SAM systems, as well as hundreds of Strela-2M MANPADS. Anti-aircraft artillery consisted of twin 57mm S-60 cannons and mobile M55 ZSUs (triple 20mm cannons mounted on TAM/BOV truck chassis), which the Serbs mercilessly used to clear Bosnian trenches.

Food and supplies

Prohibition and field kitchens: The VRS's frontline rations relied on canned goods from the former Yugoslav People's Army (JNA)—the famous army stew (mesni narezak), beans with meat (vojnički pasulj), and dry rations. The field kitchens operated smoothly thanks to rear communications with Serbia.
Traditions and alcohol: Supplies were often supplemented by locals, with homemade bread, cheese, and rakia. Alcohol was a serious problem at the front during the first year of the war—soldiers often used it to relieve extreme stress. Officers had to impose harsh penalties for drunkenness on duty.

Housing and trench life

Comfort in the dugouts: As the VRS switched to trench warfare on extended fronts, soldiers thoroughly improved their living conditions. Trenches were connected to deep dugouts ("zemunks"). They installed potbelly stoves and plank bunks, and the walls were often covered with posters, newspaper pages, and Orthodox icons.
Rotational System: Most of the VRS fighters were locally mobilized reservists. The command used a rotation system: soldiers spent 7 to 14 days in the trenches on the front lines, after which they were sent home to the rear for the same period to tend to household chores and relax with their families. This maintained morale but undermined army discipline.

Hygiene and medicine

Frontline lice and water shortages: At the front lines in the mountains (especially around Sarajevo), the main problem was the lack of clean water. Soldiers were unable to wash properly for months, leading to a raging lice infestation in the trenches. Water for drinking and cooking had to be hauled up steep slopes in canisters by hand.
Field Medicine: The Serbs inherited a strong medical service from the JNA. The wounded were quickly evacuated by ambulance trucks or Mi-8 helicopters to major hospitals (in Banja Luka or Pale). However, a shortage of modern antibiotics and surgical supplies at field medical centers led to high mortality rates.
In the dugouts they sang to the accompaniment of a guitar.

Civilian clothing and "blue jackets": In May 1992, the Tuzla volunteers had no uniform. Most fighters went to the front lines in civilian clothes (jeans, sneakers) with ARBiH lilies sewn onto their sleeves. The core of the units were former police reservists wearing blue police uniforms. Because of this, the ARBiH positions of those months resembled a militia.
Camouflage shortage: Only towards the end of the year did the brigades begin to receive camouflage, thanks to captured goods and supplies from Croatia. They used old JNA olive drab uniforms and the first commercially available ones.
Body armor: Body armor and steel helmets were practically nonexistent in 1992. Soldiers fashioned homemade vests out of canvas to carry magazines.

For the 1,500 volunteers in the 1st Brigade, there were only about 650 guns. Every third soldier was left without a weapon.
Zastava M70 and Brany assault rifles: The bulk of the arsenal consisted of Zastava M70 assault rifles (AK copies). They were captured during raids on Territorial Defense warehouses and in battles with retreating JNA columns (as during the infamous incident on the Brča Malta in Tuzla on May 15, 1992). A large part of the arsenal consisted of obsolete Zastava M59/66 semi-automatic rifles (SKS copies) and even old Soviet Degtyarev machine guns (DP-27).
Sniper weapons: There was a catastrophic shortage of sniper rifles. Hunting carbines with civilian optics or rare captured Zastava M76s were used.
Anti-tank weapons: The only defense against the Serb 1st Armored Brigade's tanks were light RPGs. The Bosnians used Yugoslav disposable 64mm M80 "Zolja" grenade launchers and old Soviet RPG-7s.

Improvised armor: The Tuzlan troops had no M-84 heavy tanks or infantry fighting vehicles during the first year of the war. Civilian trucks, clad in thin steel sheets at Tuzlan factories and equipped with light machine guns, served as armored vehicles.
Mortar artillery: Fire support for the brigades consisted of light 82mm mortars. Ammunition was conserved.

"City Fortress" and Street Defense Nodes: The brigades' primary objective was to prevent Serbian tanks of the 1st Armored Brigade of the VRS from reaching residential areas of Tuzla. Echeloned defensive lines were established around the city. Tuzla's industrial enterprises (chemical and machine-building plants) were transformed into powerful fortified areas. Multi-story buildings were converted into machine-gun nests, and basements into shelters from heavy artillery shelling.
Close combat as a defense against artillery: The Bosniaks knew that the Serbs were using a "barrage" tactic before attacking. To offset this advantage, the Tuzla infantry allowed the advancing Serb lines to approach within grenade throwing range or effective small arms fire (less than 100 meters). Serbian artillery could not fire on ARBiH positions at such close range for fear of hitting their own soldiers. The conflict descended into grueling close combat, where the Bosniaks had a numerical advantage.
Infantry ambush for tanks: Since the Tuzla residents had no tanks, mobile anti-tank groups of 3-5 men, armed with RPG-7s and Zol rockets, fought the VRS armored vehicles. They hid in ruined buildings on the outskirts or in the greenery along the roads. After allowing the lead tank to pass, the soldiers would hit its vulnerable rear or sides, paralyzing the entire column.
Raids for trophies: Constantly short of ammunition, small assault groups from the brigades carried out night raids on Serbian outposts. The primary objective was not to destroy personnel, but to seize crates of ammunition, mines, and small arms.

Their tactics were exclusively defensive; the brigades were unable to carry out large-scale offensives and counterattacks.

The brigade was formed on September 28, 1992

Frontline tricolor and lilies: Most soldiers fought in civilian clothes or camouflage jackets of various origins (from hunting jackets to old JNA uniforms). The main distinguishing mark was a sleeve emblem with the Bosnian golden lilies on a shield (the coat of arms of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina).
Civilian footwear and protective gear shortages: The brigade faced the winter of 1992 in the trenches on the heights around Sarajevo amid a severe shortage of warm clothing. Soldiers wore ordinary civilian boots and sneakers en masse. Factory-made bulletproof vests and helmets remained rare trophies. Magazine vests were homemade from heavy canvas or car seat belts.

By the end of the year, only about 50% of personnel were provided with personal small arms.
Zastava M70 assault rifles: The infantry's primary and most coveted weapon. The weapons were assembled piecemeal: some were captured from Territorial Defense warehouses, others were assembled in Sarajevo's underground workshops (where submachine guns were assembled from water pipes and makeshift parts).
A motley arsenal: Along with Kalashnikov assault rifles, the fighters made extensive use of outdated Zastava M59/66 (SKS) semi-automatic rifles, old Mauser M48 carbines, and captured submachine guns from World War II (M56 and Soviet PPSh).

Individual trophies: The brigade's entire armored vehicle fleet in 1992 consisted of one or two tanks (T-55 or M-84) and a pair of infantry fighting vehicles/armored personnel carriers, which were recaptured from the Serbs in the initial street battles or captured during the evacuation of the JNA barracks. Due to a lack of spare parts and severe fuel shortages, these vehicles were used not for maneuverable breakthroughs, but as camouflaged, stationary firing positions.
Mortars instead of artillery: The brigade's main firepower during the assault on Mount Zhuch were light, portable 82-mm mortars and a few heavy 120-mm mortars, the shells for which had to be saved and accounted for individually.

Assaulting the heights with waves of small infantry groups: The Serbian artillery advance from the heights paralyzed the city. Šehović's tactics involved stealthily approaching the Serbian positions along the steep hillsides. The soldiers were divided into assault groups of 10–15 men. Without artillery preparation, taking advantage of fog or pre-dawn darkness, they infiltrated the Serbian trenches and breached the VRS defenses in close combat with grenades and assaults.
Echeloned underground fortification: Having captured positions on Mount Žuč, the brigade immediately dug into the rocky ground. Due to continuous Serbian artillery shelling, the trenches were dug to their full height, connected by deep communication trenches, and covered with thick logs and steel plates. This allowed the infantry to withstand the heavy howitzers of the VRS and quickly repel Serbian counterattacks.
"Fire Pocket" Tactics in the City: In urban areas (the Pofalići district), the brigade employed a controlled retreat tactic. The Bosniaks demonstratively abandoned the ground floors of buildings or forward barricades, luring assaulting Serb groups into narrow streets. Once the enemy reached low ground, Šehović's guards opened crossfire with machine guns and RPGs from the upper floors of pre-fortified buildings, trapping the enemy in a fire trap.
Extremely economical use of heavy weapons: The few captured T-55 tanks and infantry fighting vehicles never attacked in columns. They were carefully camouflaged in destroyed workshops or buried under the rubble of buildings. The vehicles would move to a pre-prepared position for literally 1-2 minutes, fire a pinpoint shot at a Serbian pillbox or firing point, and immediately retreat to cover before the return artillery barrage began.

The brigade's tactics relied entirely on the supply of ammunition via secret routes across the runway of Sarajevo airport.

Small arms: The Yugoslav Zastava M70 assault rifle (a Kalashnikov copy) was the mainstay. Chinese Type 56s, Soviet AKMs, and Romanian export versions were also widely used. Over time, German MP5 submachine guns and civilian hunting rifles appeared.
Machine guns: They were armed with Soviet PKM machine guns, Yugoslav analogues Zastava M84 and Zastava M72 light machine guns.
Anti-tank weapons: The only effective weapons against Serbian armor in 1992 were Soviet RPG-7 grenade launchers and Yugoslav disposable M80 "Zola" rocket launchers smuggled through Croatia and Slovenia.

Uniform: The soldiers wore Yugoslav M89 camouflage jackets and trousers (in the "oak" pattern/M-89 Oakleaf), as well as British DPM jackets and Croatian uniforms purchased on the black market.
Religious elements: Foreign mercenaries wore traditional Arab headdresses (keffiyeh, shemagh), long Islamic beards, and green headbands with quotations from the Koran or the Shahada.
Load-bearing systems: Old Yugoslavian shoulder belts and Chinese-style canvas AK magazine pouches (Chi-Kom) were used. In 1992, the unit members practically lacked protective body armor and helmets due to shortages.

Small sabotage and reconnaissance groups (DRGs): Due to a lack of heavy weapons and their small numbers (in the summer and fall of 1992, the core of foreigners ranged from a few dozen to a couple hundred), they operated in autonomous groups of 10–15 fighters. Their primary mission was covert raids deep into Serbian positions.
Ambushes in mountainous and forested terrain: Drawing on the experience of Afghan war veterans, militants set up ambushes on the narrow mountain roads of central Bosnia. They would block the leading and trailing vehicles of Serbian columns with RPG-7s, then engage the troops with small arms at close range and quickly retreat until reinforcements arrived.
Night raids and close combat: The Mujahideen avoided daylight clashes in open terrain, where Serbian artillery and armored vehicles had an absolute advantage. They preferred to attack Serbian outposts and trenches at night or in dense fog, forcing close combat, rendering the enemy's heavy weapons useless.
Maintaining the isolation of enclaves: In 1992, the front in Bosnia was just taking shape, a patchwork of encircled villages. The groups' tactics consisted of "infiltrating" between Serb positions to deliver ammunition to besieged Bosnian villages and establish defensive strongholds there.
The emergence of psychological pressure: It was in 1992 (for example, in the battles of Travnik and Karaula) that the first cases of deliberate, demonstrative cruelty towards prisoners were recorded. At this stage, this was used to compensate for the small number of prisoners—the creation of a myth about "fearless and cruel warriors of the East" caused the poorly trained Serbian reservists to panic.

Mi-8T and Mi-17 helicopters: The most valuable asset. These helicopters (some of which were secretly purchased from former Warsaw Pact countries) were used as "air bridges" to supply enclaves surrounded by the enemy (Srebrenica, Žepa, Bihać). For self-defense and fire support, they were crudely equipped with UB-16 unguided rocket pods (S-5 missiles) and PKM machine guns in their doorways.
UTVA-66, UTVA-75, and Piper PA-18 combat trainers: Light piston-engine aircraft of Yugoslav and American manufacture. Lacking standard armament, the Bosnians converted them into surrogate bombers: pilots manually dropped mortar shells, homemade gas cylinder bombs, or canisters of flammable liquid from their cockpits onto Serb positions.
Agricultural aircraft (An-2): Used for night-time airdrops of cargo and paratroopers into besieged areas.

Improvised runways: Flights were carried out not from military bases, but from camouflaged sections of roads, straight sections of fields and meadows.
Communications and navigation: Pilots used early-generation commercial GPS navigators and civilian radios. Ground spotters in the enclaves lit fires in a strictly defined pattern to mark the drop zones in the dark.
Pilot equipment: There was no standard flight uniform. Pilots wore standard Bosnian M89 camouflage or Croatian uniforms, complemented by civilian warm jackets (for flying the An-2 with the door open) and motorcycle helmets instead of flight helmets.

Nighttime infiltration at extremely low altitudes: Most sorties (especially supply flights) were conducted exclusively at night or in conditions of poor visibility (fog, heavy snowfall). Mi-8 helicopters and An-2 aircraft flew at extremely low altitudes (15-50 meters), literally "licking" the mountainous terrain. This allowed them to hide in the terrain from Serbian air defense radars and avoid visual detection.
Exploiting "blind spots" and civilian corridors: Bosnian pilots meticulously studied the locations of Serbian anti-aircraft missile systems (Kub, Strela-2M/10) and plotted routes through deep canyons and gorges where enemy radars were useless. Sometimes they used the routes of UN humanitarian missions, flying alongside their aircraft to conceal their radar signatures.
Blind cargo drops (air bridge tactics): When resupplying besieged enclaves (Srebrenica, Žepa), landings were often impossible due to artillery shelling of the landing sites. An-2 aircraft and Mi-8 helicopters flew over the enclave at low speed, and the crew manually dropped boxes of ammunition, medicine, and dry rations by parachute or in soft packaging. The drop point was coordinated by radio and ground-based light signals.
Nonstop shuttle flights: To minimize the risk of destruction of equipment on the ground, helicopters delivering reinforcements or evacuating the wounded kept their engines running upon landing. Disembarkation and loading took between 30 seconds and two minutes, after which the aircraft immediately took off under enemy fire.
Piston-engine aircraft bombing: The tactic of attacking with light UTVA-75 or Piper aircraft involved diving on Serbian positions with the engines turned off or at idle (to reduce noise). As they passed over the trenches, the pilot or co-pilot would throw converted 82mm mortar shells or improvised explosive devices out the windows. While accuracy was in question, it had a powerful demoralizing effect.

Gun trucks and surrogate armored personnel carriers: Ordinary civilian trucks (TAM, FAP), dump trucks, tractors, and even construction tractors were lined with boiler sheet metal, steel sheets, and rubber bands. Loop ports were cut into the sides for automatic weapons. Heavy machine guns such as DShK, Browning M2, or old anti-aircraft guns were mounted in the bodies.
Missile improvisations: Due to the lack of multiple rocket launchers (MLRS), Bosnians removed UB-16-57 unguided rocket pods (equipped with S-5 rockets) from downed Serbian helicopters or aircraft. They welded them to the backs of pickup trucks or mounted them on homemade wheeled mounts, creating surrogate multiple launch rocket systems.

Accommodation and trench life

The front in Bosnia quickly stabilized in the mountains and forests, so life took on a semi-partisan character:
Dugouts and bunkers: Soldiers built deep underground shelters, using logs as roofing material. Inside, they installed makeshift potbelly stoves made from empty tin barrels or UN aid cans.
Urban barracks: In cities (for example, in besieged Sarajevo), soldiers slept in the basements of destroyed buildings, schools, and sports facilities. Blankets collected from the local population served as sleeping bags and mattresses.

Nutrition and hygiene

The Bosnian fighter's diet was meager and directly dependent on humanitarian aid and contraband:
Basic ration: The staple diet consisted of "leche" (a type of thick lentil or bean soup) and rice. The main delicacy was Ikar canned meat, supplied by the UN (soldiers ironically called it "canned sole" for its distinctive flavor), and biscuits. In the enclaves, bread was baked from coarsely ground cornmeal.
Water and hygiene: In the mountains, snow was melted or water was carried from springs under fire. Lice were rampant in the trenches. Soldiers were shaved bald, and their clothes were boiled in barrels of ash for disinfection. Bath day in frontline units occurred once a month.

Leisure and spiritual life

Despite the mortal danger, the soldiers maintained their presence of mind:
Smoking: Tobacco was the real "currency" of the war. Factory-made cigarettes cost a fortune. Soldiers smoked "shkyaka"—dried grass or low-grade tobacco wrapped in newspaper.
Music and humor: Patriotic and lyrical songs (sevdalinka) were sung in the dugouts to the accompaniment of a guitar. A distinctive "Sarajevo humor" helped cope with the psychological pressure.
Religion: Contrary to myth, most ARBiH fighters were initially secular. However, as the war intensified, Islamic traditions gained strength: congregational prayers (namaz) were performed before battle, and alcohol consumption on the front lines was gradually reduced to a minimum.

1st Brigade of the KhVO "Prince Branimir" (Chaplin)

Formed in the border region of Herzegovina, the brigade had better logistics in 1992 thanks to a direct land connection with Croatia.
Armament: The brigade's primary weapons were Yugoslav Zastava M70 assault rifles and M84 machine guns. Croatia donated captured T-55 tanks and M-80 infantry fighting vehicles, captured from JNA warehouses. This allowed the brigade to form an armored company as early as the summer of 1992.
Artillery: It had 122mm D-30 howitzers and 82mm and 120mm mortars, which were in short supply in 1992.

2nd Brigade "Kralj Tomislav" (Tomislavgrad)

The brigade controlled strategic mountain passes. In 1992, it was supplied by the Croatian diaspora, which determined its diverse range of weapons.
Small arms: Along with Kalashnikov assault rifles, the fighters made extensive use of Western weapons: German G3 rifles, Belgian FN FALs, and Uzi submachine guns.
Transportation: Due to the mountainous terrain, mobility was paramount. In 1992, the brigade requisitioned hundreds of civilian SUVs and TAM trucks, which were then crudely fitted with M55 anti-aircraft guns (triple 20mm cannons) to combat Serbian infantry.

101st Bosansko-Brodsky Brigade

Operated in northern Bosnia (Posavina). In 1992, it waged fierce battles against the Serbian Operation Corridor 92 under conditions of semi-encirclement.
Armament: Weapons were delivered by boat and across bridges across the Sava River. Due to the flat terrain and the abundance of Serbian tanks, the brigade was in dire need of anti-tank weapons. The primary weapons were Yugoslav M79 "Osa" grenade launchers and M80 "Zola" disposable grenade launchers.
Improvised Armor: Acutely feeling the shortage of tanks, in 1992, at the Brody Mechanical Plant, the Croatians began covering civilian trucks and tractors with steel sheets and conveyor rubber belts, turning them into surrogate armored vehicles.

During the first year of the war, Croatian fighters wore American uniforms US Woodland or the first Croatian camouflage patterns (copies of Woodland)

Focal Nodal Defense (101st Brigade): In the flat Posavina region, the 101st Bosansko-Brodska Brigade encountered a rapid advance by Serbian tank columns. Their tactics revolved around creating fortified defensive nodes in roadside villages. The Croats converted brick houses into durable firing points, blocked roads with minefields, and used mobile teams with Osa and Zola grenade launchers to ambush armored vehicles from the greenery.
Control of the Heights and "Roaming" Artillery (2nd Brigade): In the mountains around Tomislavgrad, the 2nd Brigade relied on holding the commanding heights. This tactic involved concealed observation posts from which mortar fire could be adjusted. The Croatians actively employed a "hit-and-run" tactic, using mobile gun trucks (trucks equipped with 20mm M55 anti-aircraft guns): they would quickly move into position, engage a Serbian checkpoint or infantry in the lowlands, and then retreat before a counter-attack.
Combined Arms Assault Operations (1st Brigade): In Herzegovina, the 1st Brigade "Prince Branimir" participated in major operations (such as "Jackals"/"June Dawns") in the summer of 1992. Unlike other forces, they employed classic inter-service tactics: an intensive artillery barrage preceded the infantry attack, after which T-55 tanks and M-80 infantry fighting vehicles led the way, penetrating the Serb defenses while the infantry cleared the trenches.
Maneuverable river defense: The 101st Brigade actively utilized the Sava River as a natural barrier and logistical artery. When threatened with encirclement, they retreated to the river under artillery cover from Croatian territory (via Slavonski Brod), which laid down barrages on the advancing Serbs.
Ethnic Communications Blockade: In the fall of 1992, amid rising tensions with Bosnian Muslims (ARBiH), HVO brigades began employing "road control" tactics. They set up fortified checkpoints at key road junctions, blocking the flow of weapons and fuel to the ARBiH deep into Bosnia.

Small arms: Yugoslavian Zastava M70B1/AB2 assault rifles. However, the Guards Brigades were the first to receive imported small arms en masse: Romanian, Chinese, and Soviet AKMs, German G3 rifles, Belgian FN FALs, MP5 submachine guns, Uzis, and Singaporean Ultimax 100s.
Machine guns and heavy weapons: Zastava M84 general-purpose machine guns and Browning M2 machine guns. Anti-tank weapons used included the Yugoslav RPG-7, M79 Osa, and M80 Zola, as well as the Malyutka and Fagot ATGMs.
Equipment: The Guardsmen stood out from the regular units. They wore high-quality US Woodland camouflage with the obligatory sleeve insignia of their brigades. Soldiers were uniformly equipped with tactical vests, protective helmets (Yugoslav M59/85, Croatian plastic, or captured Kevlar), and the first domestically produced Borovo body armor.

1st Guards Brigade "Tigers" (Tigrovi)

The most famous and experienced brigade, which operated in 1992 in the south of Croatia (breaking the blockade of Dubrovnik) and in Posavina.
Equipment: Armed with captured T-55 tanks and the latest M-84 tanks, as well as M-80A infantry fighting vehicles.
The Tigers had their own strong artillery division with 122mm D-30 howitzers and M-63 Plamen MLRS.

2nd Guards Brigade "Gromy" (Gromovi)

In 1992, it fought heavy battles in Banjina, Lika and on the southern front.
Specifics: Distinguished by its highly mobile infantry. In 1992, the brigade actively used wheeled armored personnel carriers BOV-VP (military police) and LOV (a light Croatian armored personnel carrier of its own design on a TAM truck chassis). They also had BOV-3 self-propelled anti-aircraft guns with triple 20mm cannons, used to suppress enemy fire.

3rd Guards Brigade "Kunitsa" (Kune)

It was stationed in Slavonia and in 1992 took part in the bloody battles in Posavina (including operations in the Bosanski Brod area).
Armament: Due to the flat terrain of Slavonia, the brigade was equipped with heavy armored vehicles. They used T-55 and T-34-85 tanks and PTS-M amphibious assault rifles.
This brigade had a lot of AMD-65 (Hungarian AK).

Deep envelopment and seizure of commanding heights (Southern Front): During the relief of Dubrovnik in the fall of 1992, the 1st Brigade ("Tigers") encountered fortified Serb defenses in the rugged mountains of Herzegovina. The Guards abandoned frontal assaults. Small, lightly armed infantry groups stealthily outflanked enemy positions at night along rocky cliffs, penetrated from the rear, and captured key peaks. Deprived of visibility and supply lines, the Serb units were forced to retreat under threat of encirclement.
Creation of autonomous tactical groups (TG): To enable rapid response, guards brigades were divided into mobile combat groups (usually battalion-sized). Such a group included infantry, a tank company (T-55 or M-84), a battery of 122mm D-30 howitzers, and an engineer platoon. This allowed, for example, the 3rd Brigade ("Kunice") to instantly transfer from Slavonia to Bosnian Posavina and launch counterattacks without waiting for the entire brigade's cumbersome rear units to deploy.
Barrage and infantry-artillery coordination: Guardsmen were the first in the HV to automate radio communications between assault companies and artillery battalions. Forward gunners moved in the infantry's battle formations. Before the attack, a short but extremely accurate strike from Plamen MLRS and howitzers was launched, stunning the enemy, after which the infantry, supported by M-80A infantry fighting vehicles, instantly broke into the Serbian positions.
Mobile Anti-Tank Defense (Posavina): In the flatlands of Slavonia and Posavina, the 3rd Brigade confronted large Serbian tank forces. Their tactics revolved around mobile ambushes. The Croats lured Serbian columns onto narrow causeways through swamps and river floodplains, after which the lead and rearmost vehicles were knocked out with Fagot ATGMs or Osa grenade launchers, while the vehicles trapped in the defile were attacked from the flanks.
• Night assault close combat: The Guards actively exploited the element of surprise. Offensives often began in the pre-dawn hours without artillery preparation. Special companies from the brigades infiltrated through the gaps in the Serbian defenses.

MiG-21bis supersonic fighters: The Croatian Air Force's main and only fully operational combat asset in 1992. The first three aircraft were acquired as a result of Croatian pilots defecting from the Yugoslav Air Force (the first was hijacked by Danijel Borović in February 1992, and two more were stolen from Bihać in May). The aircraft retained their standard Soviet armament: a 23mm GSh-23L integrated cannon, R-60M air-to-air missiles, and S-5 unguided rocket pods.
Improvised Antonov An-2 bombers: Old piston-engined "maize" bombers, requisitioned from flying clubs and agricultural enterprises. Croatian engineers converted them into night bombers. Soldiers manually dropped homemade "cauldron bombs" (gas cylinders filled with explosives and scrap metal) from open doors. Despite their primitiveness, they played a huge role in the fighting of late 1991 and early 1992.
Mi-8T helicopters: Several were stolen from the JNA or secretly purchased on the European black market. In 1992, they served primarily as transport and ambulance aircraft.

Flight equipment: Due to the lack of centralized logistics support in 1992, MiG-21 pilots flew in standard Yugoslav suits and GSh-6 pressure helmets, which they managed to take with them when they escaped from the JNA.
Ground personnel: Air defense mechanics and specialists wore a variety of uniforms, ranging from Soviet tank suits to civilian work clothes. Later, they began wearing former German Bundeswehr winter uniforms (olive green) purchased by Croatia and American US Woodland uniforms. Insignia included HRZ (Hrvatsko ratno zrakoplovstvo) emblems sewn onto sleeves or attached to pockets.

Anti-aircraft artillery: Yugoslav-made triple 20mm M55 cannons and Swedish 40mm Bofors L70 automatic cannons were widely used.
MANPADS: The sky was covered by Strela-2M portable missile systems (Soviet and licensed Yugoslav production), which were the most effective means against Serbian aircraft at low altitudes.

Night "partisan" bombing by An-2: Since the piston-engined An-2s were easy targets during the day, the Croatians used them exclusively at night. The aircraft flew combat missions under complete radar camouflage. Pilots flew at extremely low altitudes in folded terrain to hide from air defense radars. When approaching Serbian positions (for example, during the siege of Vukovar earlier in the year or the fighting in Slavonia), the engines were throttled to low revs for silence. Flight mechanics manually ejected homemade heavy explosive charges from the doors. While the accuracy was poor, the nighttime strikes inflicted enormous psychological damage on the Serbs and disrupted their rest.
Super-maneuverable "chase-and-chase" interceptions with MiG-21s: With only three MiG-21 fighters in the first half of 1992, the Croatians avoided head-on dogfights with Serbian MiG-21s and MiG-29s. Croatian fighters maintained watch at camouflaged airfields. Upon detecting Serbian attack aircraft (J-21 Jastreb or G-2 Galeb) coming in for a bombing run, a Croatian MiG-21 would stealthily intercept them from behind and below, exploiting the terrain. The objective was to engage in a high-speed, close-quarters engagement, fire an R-60M missile or a cannon burst, and then immediately return to base under the cover of friendly antiaircraft guns.
Establishment of false airfields and dispersal: To protect their few aircraft from destruction on the ground by Yugoslav air forces, the Croatians employed camouflage tactics. Wooden, full-size MiG-21 mockups were displayed at major bases (for example, in Zagreb). The real aircraft were based at civilian sports airfields, hidden in wooded areas along roads, or in hastily constructed agricultural hangars.
Anti-aircraft ambushes by Air Force air defense units: The Air Force's ground-based air defense tactics were based on mobility. Batteries of 20mm M55 cannons and Strela-2M MANPADS crews were never idle. They would covertly move along suspected Serbian air defense routes (usually along riverbeds or roads), set up ambushes, and shoot down or damage enemy aircraft.

Accommodation and living conditions

In contrast to the ARBiH partisan life in the forests, in 1992 the HVO units relied on the developed infrastructure of the Croatian enclaves in Bosnia (Western Herzegovina, Posavina, Central Bosnia):
Barracks and headquarters: Surviving civilian buildings—schools, motels, gyms, and administrative buildings—were converted into barracks. Efforts were made to quickly supply gas and electricity to the buildings using generators.
Positions and dugouts: On the front lines (for example, in Posavina), the Croats built substantial dugouts using concrete blocks and logs. Due to their proximity to Croatia, they had no shortage of building materials. They often installed factory stoves inside, bunk beds, and even field telephone cables.

Nutrition, supplies and hygiene

The logistics of the KhVO in 1992 worked without interruption:
Diet: The soldiers ate well. In addition to dry rations and canned goods supplied from Croatia, hot meals were prepared in rear kitchens and delivered to the front in thermoses. Meat, bread, cheese, and fresh vegetables purchased from the local Croatian population were regularly included in the rations. Parcels from relatives abroad (Germany, Austria) containing coffee, chocolate, and delicacies played a significant role.
Hygiene: Lice or water shortages were virtually unheard of in the KhVO. Regular rotation was established: soldiers spent several days at the front, after which they were sent to the rear for rest, where they could wash in equipped showers and change their clothes. Militiamen from local villages often went home to spend the night after their shift.

Leisure and internal culture

Currency and cigarettes: Croatian soldiers had no shortage of tobacco. The German mark (DEM) and Croatian dinar were the main currencies used to buy alcohol and other scarce goods in rear-area cafes.
Religion: Catholicism occupied a central place in everyday life. Almost every KhVO soldier wore a Catholic rosary around his neck. Before being sent to the front, units attended mass en masse.