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Brachiosaurus (Latin: Brachiosaurus, meaning "shouldered lizard") is a genus of herbivorous sauropod dinosaur. It lived during the late Jurassic period, approximately 154–150 million years ago.
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Name and Discovery
The name comes from the ancient Greek words βραχίων ("shoulder") and σαῦρος ("lizard, lizard"). The specific name altithorax ("deep-chested") was given to the dinosaur by American paleontologist Elmer Riggs in 1903 based on fossil remains discovered in the Colorado River Valley in Colorado, USA.
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Dimensions and structure
According to various estimates, the life-length of known Brachiosaurus specimens ranged from 18 to 21 meters, and their weight ranged from 28.3 to 58 tons. Their shoulder height reached 7 meters, exceeding that of modern giraffes.
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Some structural features:
A disproportionately long neck. It was curved in the shape of the letter S and was quite mobile both vertically and horizontally. The neck could reach 8–9 meters in length. The neck was directed not upward, but forward at an angle of approximately 45 degrees.
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Small skull.
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The forelimbs were longer than the hind limbs, which resulted in a steeply inclined body and a proportionally short tail.
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The spine had lateral holes filled with air, which made it lighter but still strong.
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The soles of the feet had thickenings - shock-absorbing cushions that protected the feet and leg bones from the pressure of the enormous mass.
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The toes were short and thick, with thick, powerful claws growing on the first toe of the front feet and on the first three toes of the hind feet.
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There was probably a small hump in the area of ​​the back vertebrae.
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Nutrition and lifestyle
Brachiosaurus was a herbivore.

Parasaurolophus (Latin: Parasaurolophus) is a genus of herbivorous hadrosaurid (duck-billed dinosaur) dinosaur that lived during the late Cretaceous Period, approximately 76–73 million years ago. They are known for their distinctive long bony crest on their heads, which served for communication and other functions.
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Main characteristics
Dimensions. Body length could reach 9–10 meters, weight – approximately 2.5–3.5 tons.
Body structure. The forelimbs were short, but capable of supporting weight when necessary. The hind limbs were powerful, allowing for both quadrupedal and bipedal locomotion. The long tail was used for balance.
The crest. It was shaped like a long, curved tube protruding backward from the skull. It consisted of hollow canals connected to the respiratory system.

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Functions of the comb
Auditory communication. The crest acted as a resonator: when the dinosaur closed its nasal valves and exhaled through its nose, the air entered the crest and produced a humming sound that could have been used for communication with conspecifics, warning of danger, or for herd interaction.
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Thermoregulation. Channels within the crest may have helped regulate body temperature.
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Sexual display. The comb may have served as a means of attracting a mate during mating season.
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Respiration. A network of respiratory tracts was discovered in the ridge.
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Previously, there was a hypothesis that the comb was used for underwater breathing, but now the prevailing opinion is about its role in communication.
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Lifestyle and nutrition
Diet. They were herbivores, feeding on leaves, branches, pine needles, and grasses. Their teeth formed a "chewing battery" capable of grinding tough vegetation. They were constantly replaced, and only a small number could be used at a time.
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Habitat: They lived in river valleys, forests, and coastal areas.

Velociraptor (from the Latin velox, meaning "fast," and raptor, meaning "thief" or "robber") is a genus of carnivorous theropod dinosaurs in the family Dromaeosauridae. It lived in Asia during the late Cretaceous Period, approximately 75–71 million years ago.
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Classification and discovery
The type species is Velociraptor mongoliensis (described in 1924 from fossils from the Djadokhta Formation in Mongolia). The second species, Velociraptor osmolskae, is named after paleontologist Halshka Osmúlska and was described in 2008 from fossils from the Bayan Mandahu Formation in China (Inner Mongolia).
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The first known fossil of Velociraptor was discovered in 1923 by an expedition led by Peter Kaisen in the Gobi Desert (Mongolia).
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Anatomical features
Size and appearance. A relatively small dinosaur: the body length of an adult was approximately 1.5–2 meters, the height at the hip was approximately 0.5 meters, and the weight ranged from 7 to 15 kilograms.
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Skull. Elongated, narrow, up to 25 centimeters long, with a raised muzzle.
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Teeth and jaws. The upper and lower jaws each have 26–28 teeth with serrated cutting edges. The teeth are spaced apart and curved backwards for grasping and tearing prey. Biomechanically, the lower jaw resembled that of the Komodo dragon and was suitable for tearing chunks from large prey.
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Claws and limbs. On the second digit of each hind limb was a large, strongly curved, sickle-shaped claw up to 6–7 centimeters long. It was previously thought to be the primary weapon for killing and tearing prey, but later experiments confirmed that Velociraptor did not use its claws as blades—their inner curved edge was rounded, and the sharp tip merely pierced the skin, not tore it. Rather, they served as hooks for grasping and holding onto prey.
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Spinosaurus (Latin: Spinosaurus, literally "spiny lizard") is a genus of theropod dinosaurs from the family Spinosauridae that inhabited what is now North Africa during the Cretaceous Period (approximately 112–93.5 million years ago). It was one of the largest known predatory dinosaurs.
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Anatomical Features
Dorsal "sail." A row of tall neural spines on the dorsal and caudal vertebrae, forming a kind of crest. Its purpose remains a subject of debate: it could have been thermoregulation, hydrostabilization, a species-specific distinction, or even a fatty hump.
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Long neck. The last cervical and first thoracic vertebrae were widened, allowing the neck to be tilted back, like a pelican's.
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A narrow snout and long jaws with straight, conical teeth reminiscent of those of a gharial. At the ends of the jaws, the teeth were gathered into rosettes, slightly curved outward.
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The nostrils were set far back, allowing them to breathe with their nose in the water.
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A flat, paddle-shaped tail, not divided into a front and back section, but rather resembling a fish fin. The back of the tail consisted of short vertebrae with narrow processes, providing flexibility when moving through the water.
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Short hind limbs and dense, hard bones, which may have helped control buoyancy in water.
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Massive forelimbs with large, sharp claws that could have been used to grasp and manipulate prey.
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Dimensions and weight
Estimates of body length vary from 12.57 to 16 meters, and weight from 7–9 tons to 12 tons, with certain assumptions in the reconstruction – up to 20 tons.
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Habitat and diet
Spinosaurus lived in a warm and humid climate

Tyrannosaurus rex (T-rex) is a genus of carnivorous theropod dinosaurs from the family Tyrannosaurids, one of the most famous and largest land predators in the history of the Earth.
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Period of Existence and Range
Tyrannosaurus rex lived at the end of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 72.7–66.043 million years ago. It inhabited the western part of what is now North America, which at that time was the island of Laramidia. Fossil remains are found in various geological formations.
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Physical characteristics
Tyrannosaurus rex was a bipedal predator with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy, and stiff tail. Its forelimbs were small but powerful for their size, with two clawed toes.
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One of the largest specimens, named Sue, measured 12.3–12.8 m in length in life, had a hip height of 3.6 m, and weighed approximately 8.4–9.5 tons.
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Some design features:
The skull was wide at the back and narrow at the front, which provided developed binocular vision.
Teeth. Large, curved inward into the mouth, with fine serrations.
The spine consisted of 10 cervical, 13 dorsal, 5 sacral, and an unspecified number of caudal vertebrae (Sue had 47 caudal vertebrae).

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Nutrition and hunting
As the largest carnivore in its ecosystem, Tyrannosaurus rex was likely an apex predator, hunting hadrosaurs, ceratopsians, ankylosaurs, and possibly sauropods. However, some researchers suggest it primarily scavenged.
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Most experts believe that Tyrannosaurus was an opportunistic predator—it could both hunt and scavenge.
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The Tyrannosaurus' bite force is estimated to have reached 250–300 kilonewtons. This allowed it to crush bones with repeated bites and consume the carcasses of large dinosaurs.

Carnotaurus (Latin: Carnotaurus sastrei) is a genus of predatory dinosaurs from the family Abelisauridae that lived during the late Cretaceous Period (approximately 72–69 million years ago) in what is now Argentina. The name translates as "carnivorous bull" and refers to the distinctive horny growths above its eyes.
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Structural Features
A short, high skull with two horn-like, flattened outgrowths above the eyes. The horns were formed by the frontal bones, had a conical shape, were vertically flattened in cross-section, and reached 15 cm in length.
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The forelimbs were very short—proportionally even smaller than those of a Tyrannosaurus rex. Each paw had four toes.
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The hind limbs are relatively long and slender. The anterior caudal vertebrae had highly directed transverse processes, between which were well-developed caudofemoral muscles. This could have provided strong posterior hip abduction and good acceleration.
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The teeth are numerous, small, and well suited for cutting off pieces of meat.
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The skull had pronounced kineticism (mobility of the joints between the bones), which allowed it to swallow large pieces of meat or small animals whole.
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The eyes are very small, and perhaps the sense of smell played a large role in orientation.
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Habitat and diet
Carnotaurus lived in Argentine Patagonia during the late Cretaceous. The landscape consisted of alternating semi-arid plains and extensive river systems.
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Carnotaurus is believed to have occupied the niche of an apex predator. Its diet may have primarily consisted of smaller animals like ornithopods and dromaeosaurids, but it may have occasionally attacked larger animals, such as sauropods.

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