DVP (Dutch VolksPartei)

• Gustav Stresemann: Founder and president of the party from 1918 until his death. Reich Chancellor between August and November 1923 (Grand Coalition) and Foreign Minister from 1923 to 1929. He was the dominant figure in the DVP and the foremost representative of "republicanism of reason." His death in October 1929 accelerated the party's decline.

• Ernst Scholz: He succeeded Stresemann as party chairman (1929–1930). Closer to the right wing and industrial interests, he attempted to maintain unity, but under his leadership the DVP shifted towards more conservative positions.

• Eduard Dingeldey (1886–1942): Last president of the party (1930–1933). He clearly represented the right wing. Under his leadership, the DVP moved away from Stresemann's course and lost almost all influence.

• Julius Curtius (1877–1948): Minister of Economics (1926–1929) and later Minister of Foreign Affairs (1929–1931), succeeding Stresemann. He partly continued Stresemann's foreign policy, although with a harsher approach.

• Karl Jarres (1874–1951): Mayor of Duisburg. He was Minister of the Interior and Vice-Chancellor at the end of 1923 (in the second Stresemann cabinet and in Marx's cabinet). He was the right-wing candidate in the first round of the 1925 presidential elections. He represented a more nationalist position within the DVP.

• Figures of the industrial/right wing: Hugo Stinnes (until his death in 1924), Albert Vögler, and Reinhold Quaatz. They exerted strong economic influence and pushed the party towards positions closer to the DNVP and critical of coalitions with the SPD.

Stresemann was by far the central figure. After his death, the DVP never regained the same direction or influence.

The Dutch People's Party (DVP) was founded in December 1918 as the main successor to the Imperial National Liberal Party. It is a center-right liberal-conservative or national-liberal party. Its undisputed leader in 1923 was Gustav Stresemann. It represents the interests of heavy industry, the upper bourgeoisie, professionals, and the propertied middle classes. Its usual colors are black, white, and red (imperial).

In January 1923, France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr region due to unpaid reparations. The Cuno government responded with "passive resistance." This triggered hyperinflation to apocalyptic levels. In August 1923, Stresemann formed the first Grand Coalition (DVP + SPD + Zentrum + DDP) and assumed the Chancellorship. On September 26, the end of passive resistance was ordered. In November, the Rentenmark was introduced to stabilize the currency. On November 8-9, Hitler's failed Munich Putsch took place.

• Defense of private property and the market economy.
• Rejection of Marxism and Bolshevism.
• Peaceful revision of the Treaty of Versailles.
• Preference for a strong and orderly state; many members remain monarchists at heart, but Stresemann imposes republican realism.
• International cooperation when it is useful for Germany, but always from a position of national dignity.
• Distrust towards the extreme right (DNVP and völkische) and towards the extreme left.

Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929) was the Chairman of the German People's Party (DVP) and Chancellor of the Reich from August 13, 1923. He also served as Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was a pragmatic politician who had evolved from imperial nationalism to "republicanism of reason." His priority in 1923 was to halt Germany's economic and political collapse, even if it cost him the support of some within his own party.

There is a deep division within the DVP. The industrial wing and many rank-and-file members detest the coalition with the Social Democrats and believe that Stresemann is "selling out" national principles. Some are defecting to the DNVP. Stresemann maintains control, but party unity is fragile.

In 1923, a 100,000-mark note could barely buy a loaf of bread. The savings of the middle class had evaporated. Rampant speculation, hunger in the cities, and a climate of constant political violence (assassinations, putschs, and street battles) prevailed. The DVP attempted to present itself as the party of “order and reason” in the face of chaos.

Within the Deutsche Volkspartei there were strong internal tensions in 1923, especially between two main factions:

1. Stresemann Wing (center-moderate / “Vernunftrepublikaner”):
   Led by Gustav Stresemann, it was pragmatic and realistic. It accepted the Weimar Republic not out of idealistic conviction, but out of political necessity ("republicanism of reason"). It was willing to form coalitions, even with the SPD (Grand Coalition of August 1923), to stabilize the state, end passive resistance in the Ruhr, and combat hyperinflation. It prioritized economic recovery and a foreign policy of gradual understanding with the victorious powers.

2. Right wing / Industrial wing (nationalist right):
   It was closely linked to the heavy industry of the Ruhr and Rhineland. It was more nationalist, monarchist at heart, and deeply hostile to any collaboration with the Social Democrats. It strongly criticized Stresemann for "giving in" to the left and abandoning passive resistance. It preferred a rapprochement with the DNVP and a more confrontational policy. Representative figures of this current were men close to big industry (such as the circle of Hugo Stinnes or Albert Vögler). In 1923, this wing generated strong internal opposition ("Fronde") against Stresemann and led some members to leave for the DNVP.

These divisions made party unity fragile. Stresemann managed to impose his line thanks to his personal prestige and control of the leadership, but the right wing never stopped pressuring him and undermining the Grand Coalition from within.

In 1923 the political landscape of the Weimar Republic was dominated by the following main parties (seen from the perspective of the DVP):

• SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany): Workers' Party. Social democratic, defender of the Republic and social reforms. In 1923 it was part of the Grand Coalition with the DVP under Stresemann, although relations were tense due to economic and social differences.

• Zentrum (Center Party): A Catholic center party. Pragmatic and a regular member of almost all coalitions. It preferred stability and compromise. A natural ally of the DVP in bourgeois governments.

• DDP (Deutsche Demokratische Partei): Left-wing liberals. More republican and progressive than the DVP. They shared the liberal space with us, but with a greater emphasis on democracy and less on heavy industry.

• DNVP (Deutschnationale Volkspartei): Conservative and monarchist nationalists. Further to the right than the DVP. Many of our right-wing members sympathized with them. They rejected the Republic and preferred a policy of confrontation.

• KPD (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands): Communists. Absolute enemies. They represented the Bolshevik danger and violent revolution.

• BVP (Bayerische Volkspartei): Bavarian Catholic party, more conservative and particularist than the Zentrum. Important in Bavaria and sometimes necessary for majorities.

In addition to the major parties, there were smaller groups with specific interests that could be useful as junior partners in coalitions. The DVP could negotiate with them according to the coalition's needs at the time.

1. Middle Economic Party (Wirtschaftspartei / Reichspartei des deutschen Mittelstandes)
   It represented merchants, artisans, and the propertied middle class. It was very sensitive to taxes and inflation.

2. Agrarian League / Peasants' Party (Landbund or regional peasant formations)
   He defended the interests of farmers and rural landowners.

3. People's Rights and Revaluation Party (currents of those affected by inflation / Volksrecht)
   It brought together savers, rentiers, and middle classes ruined by hyperinflation.

4. Party of Civil Servants and Public Employees (Beaute formations and public sector interests)
   He represented civil servants, state employees, and the middle class with fixed salaries. He could be called upon in negotiations.

There were no elections in 1923. The Reichstag in session was the one elected on June 6, 1920 (459 seats in total). Approximate distribution of seats in 1920/1923:

• SPD: 102–103
• USPD: 83–84
• DNVP: 71
• DVP: 65
• Zentrum: 64
• DDP: 39
• BVP: 20–21
• KPD: 4
• Others (minor and regional parties): remainder

This meant that no coalition would be easy. The DVP, with 65 seats, occupied a pivotal position: it could tip the balance towards bourgeois governments or towards the Grand Coalition.