Henry VIII

Henry VIII (Placentia Palace, 28 June 1491 – Whitehall Palace, 28 January 1547) was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 22 April 1509 until his death. He was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, succeeding his father, Henry VII. He married six times and wielded the most absolute power of any English monarch. Among the most notable events of his reign were the break with the Catholic Church and the establishment of the monarch as Supreme Head of the Church of England (Anglican Church), the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and the union of England and Wales. He also enacted important legislation, such as the various acts of separation from the Church of Rome, his designation as Supreme Head of the Church of England, the Acts of Union of 1535 and 1542, which united England and Wales as a single nation, the Buggery Act of 1533, the first legislation against sodomy in England, and the Witchcraft Act of 1542, which punished witchcraft with the death penalty. His patronage of the German painter Hans Holbein resulted in a formidable series of portraits and colored drawings depicting many figures at court during that period, including several of the king himself. Henry VIII was born in the palace of Henry Placentia was born in Greenwich on June 28, 1491. He was the third child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Only three of his six siblings survived infancy: Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales; Margaret Tudor, Queen Consort of Scotland; and Mary Tudor, Queen Consort of France. His father, a member of the House of Lancaster, had acquired the throne by right of conquest, his army having defeated the last Plantagenet, Richard III, and subsequently securing his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter of Edward IV. In 1493, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Five Harbors. In 1494, he was created Duke of York and later Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.

Enrique received a good education, with excellent tutors, which allowed him to become fluent in Latin, French, and Spanish. His mother died when he was eleven years old.

During his youth, he was an avid gambler and dice player, and he also practiced jousting, hunting, and royal tennis, the precursor to modern tennis. He was also an accomplished musician, writer, and poet. He was involved in the reconstruction and improvement of several important buildings, such as Nonsuch Palace, the chapel of King's College, Cambridge, and Westminster Abbey in London. In many cases, these were confiscated buildings, for example, from Cardinal Thomas Wolsey; these included Christ Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, Whitehall Palace, and Trinity College, Cambridge.

Marriage to Catherine of Aragon In 1501, Arthur Tudor, heir to the English throne, married Catherine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of the Catholic Monarchs, at St. Paul's Cathedral in London. The couple, then fifteen and sixteen years old respectively, were sent to Wales for a time, as was customary with the heir to the throne and his wife. The following year, after only twenty weeks of marriage, Arthur Tudor died of an infection, and Henry became Prince of Wales and heir to the throne. Henry VII of England, still interested in forging a marriage alliance between England and Spain, offered his son Henry in marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

To arrange the marriage between his son and Catherine of Aragon, Henry VII first needed a papal dispensation. Catherine of Aragon maintained that her first marriage had not been consummated; if so, no dispensation was required, only a simple dissolution of a merely formal marriage. However, both the Spanish and English courts insisted on the necessity of a papal dispensation to eliminate any doubts concerning the legitimacy of the marriage. Due to the impatience of Isabella I of Castile, the pope hastily granted the dispensation by means of a bull. Thus, fourteen months after the death of her first husband, Catherine found herself betrothed to his brother. In 1505, Henry VII lost interest in maintaining the alliance with Spain, and the Prince of Wales was forced to declare that the betrothal had been arranged without his consent.

Beginning of the reign: Henry Tudor ascended the throne in 1509 as Henry VIII, following the death of his father. Ferdinand the Catholic arranged the marriage of his daughter Catherine of Aragon to the new king. Henry VIII married Catherine in Greenwich on June 11, 1509, disregarding the advice of Pope Julius II and William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, regarding the validity of the union. They were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on June 24, 1509.

Catherine's first pregnancy ended in miscarriage in 1510. She then gave birth to a son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, on January 1, 1511, but the baby only lived until February 22 of that same year. Upon his coronation, Henry VIII had to confront the problematic consequences of the nobility taxes imposed by Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, members of his father's cabinet. Two days after his appointment, he had them arrested in the Tower of London; they were charged with high treason and beheaded in 1510. Unlike Henry VII, who favored peaceful policies, Henry VIII displayed a warlike inclination throughout his reign.

For the two years following Henry VIII's accession, Richard Fox, Bishop of Winchester, and William Warham controlled the affairs of state. From 1511 onward, however, real power was held by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. In that same year, Pope Julius II proclaimed a Holy League against France (the War of the League of Cambrai). The new military alliance was quickly forged, including England, Spain, ruled by the Catholic Monarchs, and the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by Emperor Maximilian I. Henry VIII signed the Treaty of Westminster, in which he promised mutual support to Spain against France. In 1513, he invaded France and defeated its armies at the Battle of the Spurs. Meanwhile, James IV of Scotland, an ally of France, invaded England from the north, but was defeated and killed at Flodden on September 9, 1513, thus ending the conflict.

In 1514, Ferdinand the Catholic withdrew from the alliance, and the other parties made peace with France. Henry VIII sealed the peace with France by arranging the marriage of his sister, Mary Tudor, to the French monarch, Louis XII, in 1514. The resulting irritation with Spain sparked discussions about a divorce between Henry VIII and Catherine. However, with the accession of Francis I to the French throne in 1515, antagonism between England and France intensified, and Henry reconciled with the Spanish monarchs. In 1516, Catherine conceived a daughter, Mary Tudor, renewing Henry VIII's hopes of a male heir despite his wife's previous miscarriages. It was a long-standing marriage, but Henry VIII's impatience for a son, which Catherine could not provide, ultimately led to the end of the relationship. Ferdinand the Catholic died in 1516 and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles I, Catherine's nephew. By October 1518, Thomas Wolsey had designed the Treaty of London with the papacy, with the idea of ​​achieving a triumph for English diplomacy, which placed the kingdom at the center of a new European alliance with the ostensible objective of repelling Moorish invasions of Spain, as requested by the pope.

In 1519, Maximilian I died, and Wolsey secretly proposed Henry VIII as a candidate for Holy Roman Emperor, even though he publicly appeared to support the French king, Francis I. Ultimately, the prince-electors chose Charles I of Spain. The ensuing rivalry between France and Spain allowed Henry VIII to act as a mediator. Thus began his role in managing the balance of power in Europe.

Both Francis I and Charles I attempted to curry favor with Henry VIII, the former spectacularly and dazzlingly with the meeting at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and the latter with all the solemnity of the Kentish meetings. After 1521, however, English influence in Europe began to wane. Henry entered into an alliance with Charles I through the Treaty of Windsor, and Francis I of France was defeated by Charles I's imperial army at the Battle of Pavia in February 1525. The emperor's confidence in Henry VIII diminished at the same rate as English power on the continent. Henry VIII was reluctant to help him conquer France, despite Charles I's assurances. This ended with the Treaty of Westminster in 1527.

Henry VIII's interest in continental affairs extended to his attack on the German Reformation led by the Augustinian friar Martin Luther. In 1521, he dedicated his Defense of the Seven Sacraments to Luther, which earned him the title Defender of the Faith. Based on this, he was recognized with the title inclitissimus. This honor remained with him even after his break with Rome and is still used by the British monarchy.

The real question Henry VIII's coronation was the first peaceful one in England for many years; however, the legitimacy of the Tudor dynasty still had to be tested. This was made possible by the death of his elder brother, Arthur Tudor, at the age of fifteen.

The English people seemed unhappy with the rules of female succession, and Henry VIII felt that only a male heir could secure the throne. Although Catherine of Aragon became pregnant at least seven times (the last time in 1518), only one of the children, Mary Tudor, survived infancy. Henry VIII had frequented mistresses, including Mary Boleyn and Elizabeth Blount, with whom he had an illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset. In 1526, when it became clear that Catherine could not bear any more children, Henry began to take an interest in Mary Boleyn's sister, Anne Boleyn.

Although Henry VIII's primary motivation for seeking an annulment of Catherine's marriage was his desire for a male heir, he became increasingly infatuated with Anne Boleyn, eventually falling in love with her. The king's lengthy attempt to end his marriage became known as "The Royal Question." Cardinal Wolsey and William Warham secretly began investigating the validity of the marriage to Catherine. The queen had testified that her first marriage had not been consummated and that, consequently, there was no impediment to her subsequent marriage to Henry VIII. The investigation could not proceed further and was dismissed.

Without informing Wolsey, Henry VIII appealed directly to the Holy See. He sent his secretary, William Knight, to Rome to argue that Julius II's bull, which had permitted the marriage between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, had been obtained through deception and was therefore invalid. He also asked Pope Clement VII to grant him a dispensation allowing him to marry any woman, even those within the first degree of consanguinity. This dispensation was necessary because Henry VIII had previously had sexual relations with Mary Boleyn.

Knight found that Clement VII was practically a prisoner of Charles I of Spain, Catherine's nephew. He had difficulty even getting an audience with the pontiff, and when he finally succeeded, he did not achieve the results he sought. Although he did not agree to annul the marriage, Clement VII granted the dispensation, presuming that it would have little effect as long as Henry remained married to Catherine.

Informed of the king's representative's findings, Wolsey sent Stephen Gardiner and Edward Fox to Rome. Perhaps fearing Charles I, the pope initially avoided addressing their claims. Fox was sent back with a commission authorizing the commencement of proceedings, but the imposed restrictions rendered it virtually meaningless.

Gardiner sought to form an executive committee to decide in advance the legal points to be discussed. Clement VII was persuaded to accept this proposal and allowed Wolsey and Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio to handle the case together. The committee operated in secret; its conclusions were not to be shown to anyone and were to remain in Campeggio's possession.

The commission determined that the papal bull authorizing Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine would be declared null and void if the claims on which it was based were proven false. For example, the bull would be null and void if it turned out to be false that the marriage had been absolutely necessary to maintain the Anglo-Spanish alliance.

Cardinal Campeggio arrived in England in 1528. The proceedings, however, stalled when the Spanish issued a second document that presumed the granting of the necessary dispensation. It asserted that, a few months before granting the dispensation in a public bull, Pope Julius II had granted the same in a private note sent to Spain.

The commission, however, only made mention of the bull; it did not authorize Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio to determine the validity of the note, and for eight months the parties litigated over its authenticity. During the spring of 1529, Henry VIII's legal team completed the "libel," a summary of the royal arguments, including Leviticus 20:21, which was presented to the papal delegates, and where, for example, the following is noted:

"June 18, 1529: The queen was summoned to the great hall of the Black (Benedictine) monastery in London. The king, on a raised platform, sat at one end. Some distance away, Catherine took his place. The cardinals, seated lower than the king, flanked the royal presence, and nearby sat the archbishop of Canterbury and the remaining bishops. Dr. Richard Sampson, later bishop of Chichester, and Dr. John Bell, later bishop of Worcester, led those litigating for the king. Representing the queen were John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and Dr. Standish, a grey monk and bishop of St. Asaph. Following a series of deliberations, the case was elevated on appeal to Rome, chiefly after Catherine's nephew, Charles V, pressed the pope to recall Cardinal Campeggio, and Catherine was placed in the care of Sir Edmund Bedingfield at Kimbolton Castle."

Catherine of Aragon pleading at her trial before Henry VIII. Painting by Henry Nelson O'Neil. Angered by the delay, Henry VIII stripped Wolsey of his power and wealth. He accused him of "præmunire," but Wolsey died soon after. With Wolsey fell other powerful members of the Church in England; In the offices of the Lord Chancellor and the Keeper of the Seals, laymen were appointed to positions previously reserved solely for clergymen. Power passed first to Thomas More, who assumed the position of Lord Chancellor of England on October 26, 1529. John Stokesley, who had been a member of the Royal Council, chaplain, and attendant to Henry VIII, serving him at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, was sent in 1529 to France—as ambassador to Francis I—and to Italy seeking further support for the divorce of the king and Catherine of Aragon. He was appointed Bishop of London on March 28, 1530, coinciding with the growing fall from grace of Thomas More, who would eventually resign his post on May 16, 1532, one day after the English clergy definitively submitted to the king's supremacy over the Church. By 1531, More's influence had already waned, and various Those who supported the king's intentions quickly rose in status. Thomas Cromwell's growing political influence was evident in the series of offices he held between 1532 and 1533, which eventually included Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State. Meanwhile, Thomas Cranmer was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury on March 30, 1533. On January 25, 1533, Cranmer officiated at the wedding of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. In May, he annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine of Wales and shortly thereafter declared his marriage to Anne valid. Catherine lost her title of queen and became the Dowager Princess of Wales. Her daughter, Mary Tudor, now considered illegitimate, lost her title of Princess of Wales and became simply Lady. Anne's daughter, Elizabeth Tudor, became heir presumptive. Catherine of Aragon died of cancer in 1536. Thomas More accepted the English Parliament's decision to make Anne queen, as laws originated from Parliament, and he remained silent on Henry VIII's position as head of the Church of England, even resigning as Lord Chancellor to avoid having to take a stance. He knew his life depended on it. For a time, Henry VIII left him alone, but his silence was so deafening to all of England that he eventually sought to make him speak. He was interrogated many times. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London and subjected to a trial that included false testimony. Thomas Cromwell acted as the prosecutor. Found guilty of high treason, due to the false testimony, he was condemned to death. Once the sentence was pronounced, and when the judges asked him for a final statement, he finally spoke, declaring that the trial had been a sham and denying that Henry VIII could be head of the Church. He was executed in 1535. The Catholic Church considered him a martyr of the faith and canonized him four centuries after his death.

Religious unrest The pope responded to these events by excommunicating Henry VIII in July 1533. Considerable religious unrest ensued. Urged on by Thomas Cromwell, Parliament passed several acts that sealed the rift with Rome in the spring of 1534. The Appeals Restraint Act prohibited appeals from ecclesiastical courts to the pope. It also prevented the Church from enacting any regulations without the king's prior consent. The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act of 1534 decreed that clergymen chosen as bishops had to be nominated by the sovereign. The Supremacy Act of the same year declared that "the king is the sole supreme head on earth of the Church of England." The Treason Act, also of 1534, made it high treason, punishable by death, to deny the king's authority, among other offenses. The pope was denied all sources of monetary revenue, such as Peter's Pence.

Henry VIII was known for his robust build and tall stature for the time. Although athletic in his youth, he developed obesity over time, especially in his later years. He was described as a stout man with strong legs and an imposing face.

Youth: •Henry VIII was considered an attractive man in his youth, with an athletic figure and a height that exceeded the average for his time.

•It is said that she had a waist of 81 centimeters and a chest of 99 centimeters.

•He could be considered a person of fairly athletic build, with an approximate weight of 90 kilos.

Maturity: •Over time, Henry VIII developed obesity and was described as a corpulent man.

•Her waist and chest increased considerably, reaching 132 and 135 centimeters respectively.

•In his later years, it is said that he needed help to move around due to his weight and that he was transported in a kind of wheelchair.

Physical characteristics: •He was a tall man for his time, measuring approximately 1.87 meters (6 feet 2 inches).

•Her nose was long and her eyes, although small, were blue and expressive.

•In paintings from his time, he is portrayed in an imposing pose, corpulent, with his legs open and a look that denotes power.

•He is also described as a charismatic and dominant man.

In summary, Henry VIII was a king who went from being an athletic man in his youth to a corpulent monarch in his maturity, with above-average height and a face that reflected power and charisma.

Henry VIII of England has been forever enshrined in the myth of a capricious, arrogant, bloodthirsty, and womanizing king for five centuries. His legend is that of a monarch who defied the Pope and Catholic Europe, who had six wives, and who didn't hesitate to order the beheading of anyone who stood in his way.

We suggest that Henry IV may have suffered from McCune-Albright syndrome associated with fibrous dysplasia, a rare disease due to activating mutations in the GNAS gene.

King of England April 21, 1509 – January 28, 1547 (37 years old)

Predecessor Henry VII of England

Successor Edward VI of England

Other titles Lord of Ireland April 21, 1509 – June 18, 1542 (34 years old) Predecessor Henry VII of England Successor Title abolished

King of Ireland June 18, 1542-January 28, 1547 (4 years)

Predecessor Title created Successor Edward VI of England

Personal information Treatment Majesty

Other titles Duke of York (1494-1509) Prince of Wales (1504-1509) Supreme Head of the Church of England (1536-1547)

Coronation June 24, 1509

Birth June 28, 1491 Placentia Palace, England

Death January 28, 1547 (55 years old) Whitehall Palace, England

Grave St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

Religion Catholicism and the Church of England

Family Royal Family Tudor

Father Henry VII of England

Mother Elizabeth of York

Consort Catherine of Aragon (married 1509; died 1533) Anne Boleyn (matr. 1533; div. 1536) Juana Seymour (m. 1536; widow 1537) Anne of Cleves (married 1540; died 1540) Catherine Howard (matr. 1540; div. 1542) Catherine Parr (d. 1543; died 1547)