Alexander the Great

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre,_o_Grande

With Egypt under his control, Alexander set sail in 331 BC towards Mesopotamia, the heart of the Persian Empire. There he once again confronted Darius in the crucial battle of Gaugamela. Again, even outnumbered, he emerged victorious and destroyed the enemy army. Darius, as he had done after other defeats suffered at the hands of Alexander, fled in despair. The city of Babylon, the empire's capital, opened its gates to the Macedonians (to avoid being destroyed). Alexander and his men entered its walls and occupied Darius' palaces. The Persian king had fled, and Alexander pursued him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela ended up becoming the decisive battle of the Persian campaign. Darius' reign collapsed, and he was unable to raise an army again. The former Persian king fled to Ecbatana. After conquering Babylon, Alexander went to the city of Susa, one of the capitals of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia), and captured its legendary treasures. He then sent the bulk of his army to Persepolis, using the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself led the vanguard, taking a group of soldiers and passing through the Persian Gates, which were defended by a troop commanded by the satrap Ariobarzanes. Alexander quickly overcame these defenses and advanced into Persepolis, plundering its treasures. In Persepolis, Alexander gave permission for his soldiers to loot the city and take personal spoils. Alexander stayed in the city for five months. During his stay, a fire started in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread throughout the city. It is unknown whether it was deliberate or an accident caused by a drunkard. For some, it was an act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Greco-Persian War.

After crushing Persian resistance at Tyre, most of the cities along the coastline to Egypt quickly surrendered. A notorious story is reported when the Macedonians entered Jerusalem: according to Josephus, Alexander was shown a prophecy from the Book of Daniel, presumably chapter 8, which described a powerful Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He spared Jerusalem from destruction and advanced towards Egypt. The advance in the region was not peaceful, with Alexander facing resistance from the fortified city of Gaza, built near mountains. The Macedonians besieged the city. The defenders resisted but had to surrender after suffering heavy casualties. During the battle, Alexander was wounded. As in Tyre, Alexander's forces massacred countless civilians and sold thousands of others into slavery. Alexander entered Egypt at the end of 332 BC, where he was hailed as a liberator by the local population. He was proclaimed the son of the god Amun by the Oracle of Siwa, in territory that was located in the ancient Libyan desert. Later, Alexander came to be called the son of Zeus-Amon, and after his death he continued to be treated as a deity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded the city of Alexandria, which would become one of the most prosperous urban centers of antiquity and the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt.

In 334 BC, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont with approximately 48,100 infantry soldiers, 6,100 cavalry, and a fleet of 120 ships with a crew of 38,000 men. These combatants were mostly Macedonians, but also included thousands of Greeks from various city-states, mercenaries, and troops acquired from Thrace, Paeonia, and Illyria. He demonstrated his determination to conquer Persia by planting his spear on Asian soil and declaring that he would accept Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed his willingness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy. The first major confrontation with the Persians occurred at the Battle of Granicus on the 24th of Daisios. Alexander defeated his adversaries and accepted the surrender of Sardis, the capital of the local province. He then proceeded along the Ionian coast, securing the autonomy of the region's cities. The city of Miletus, the main center of Persian resistance, was besieged and conquered. Further south was Halicarnassus in Caria, where a prolonged siege was laid. Alexander forced the surrender of the Persian troops, capturing the local mercenary leader, thus forcing the flight of the satrap of Caria, Orontobates. Alexander left a member of the Hecatoncheires dynasty, Ada, in power in the region, who adopted him. From Halicarnassus, Alexander went to the mountains of Lycia and the plains of Pamphylia, taking control of the coastal cities of Asia Minor, denying the Persians the use of these as a base for their navy. From Pamphylia and the coast, Alexander moved inland. At Termessus, he advanced on the city of Pisidia. In the ancient city of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian knot, a feat that is said to await the future "king of Asia". According to the story, Alexander said it didn't matter how the knot was undone and simply destroyed it with his sword.

News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, then king of Illyria, and Glaucias, leader of the Taulantii Confederation, were also in revolt. He then marched to Illyria, defeating all enemy forces along the way and putting the rebels to flight. Thus the northern border was secure. While Alexander fought in the north, the Thebans and Athenians once again revolted. Alexander marched south again. Other Greek cities chose to hesitate, but Thebes rushed into battle. Its resistance was, however, ineffective, and Alexander destroyed the city and burned all the surrounding regions. Many people died and thousands more were enslaved. Athens and other Greek cities, impressed and frightened, sought peace with Macedonia. With Greece once again firmly under his control, Alexander turned his attention to Asia. He left his general Antipater as regent.

When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Despite being advised to use diplomacy, Alexander gathered 3,000 knights and marched towards Thessaly. He encountered the Thessalian army in a pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to march towards Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke, they found Alexander in their rear and decided to surrender, pledging their forces to the king. He continued south, heading towards the Peloponnese. Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before proceeding to Corinth. Athens decided to sue for peace, and Alexander pardoned them. The famous meeting between Alexander and Diogenes of Sinope occurred while they were in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to step aside a little, as he was blocking the sunlight. Alexander liked the answer and is said to have remarked, "But in truth, if I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." In Corinth, like his father, he was appointed hegemon of Greece to fight against Persia. While there, he received news of a new rebellion in Thrace. Before setting off for Asia to confront the Persians, Alexander wanted to secure his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he went to suppress several revolts. Starting in Amphipolis, he traveled east to confront the Thracians, and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces in the region. Alexander's troops then launched themselves upon Tribalius, defeating the local armies on the banks of the Liginus River. Alexander then marched for three days along the Danube, encountering the Thracian tribes of the Getae. He had little difficulty in overcoming them.

In the summer of 336 BC, while in Aegae at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias' brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was killed by Pausanias, the captain of his own guard. While Pausanias tried to flee, he tripped and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was then proclaimed king by the Macedonian nobles and the army. He was only twenty years old. Now Alexander III, the new king began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He ordered the execution of his cousin, Amyntas IV. He also ordered the death of two Macedonian princes of Lyncestis, but spared a third, Alexander of Lyncestis. Olympias ordered Cleopatra Eurydice and her daughter with Philip, the child Europa, to be burned alive. When Alexander discovered what his mother had done, he was furious. However, he had to order the execution of Attalus, Eurydice's uncle, who commanded the vanguard of the army in Asia Minor. At that time, Attalus was negotiating with Demosthenes about the possibility of defecting to Athens. He constantly insulted Alexander, and after Cleopatra's death, Alexander must have considered him too dangerous to live. The king spared Arrhidaeus, who was said to be mentally incompetent at the time, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. News of Philip's death caused several Greek cities to revolt against Macedonia, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and various Thracian tribes north of the Macedonian border.

In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanice, sister of the future general Cleitus. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas of Epirus, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus, a general of Philip. Alexander was raised like all young Macedonian nobles, learning to fight, read, play the lyre, ride, and hunt. When Alexander was ten years old, a merchant from Thessaly brought a horse to Philip, who sought to sell it for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be ridden, and Philip dismissed it. Alexander, however, noticing that the horse seemed afraid of its own shadow, claimed that he could tame the animal, which he later managed to do. Philip was enraged by his son's courage and ambition, kissed him firmly, and declared: "My son, you must find a kingdom large enough for your ambition. Macedonia is too small for you." He ended up buying the horse for the boy. Alexander named the animal Bucephalus, which means "ox-headed." Bucephalus became Alexander's principal horse, accompanying him on his campaigns in India. When Alexander was thirteen, Philip began searching for a tutor for his son and considered scholars such as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter of whom wanted the position. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and offered him the Temple of the Nymphs in Mieza to use as a classroom. In return for educating his son, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown, Stagira, which Philip himself had destroyed. He would repopulate it, free its enslaved citizens, and pardon those in exile.

Alexander was born in the city of Pella, capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, on the sixth day of the Hecatomb month of the ancient Greek calendar, which probably corresponds to July 20, 356 BC. He was the son of King Philip II and his fourth wife, Olympias, daughter of King Neoptolemus I of Epirus. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for a long time, probably due to the fact that she was the one who gave him a son. Olympias, on the night of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb had been struck by lightning. It is said that Philip, in a dream some time after the wedding, saw himself holding his wife's womb, marking it with a seal engraved with the image of a lion. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege of the city of Potidaea on the Chalcidice peninsula. On the same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined armies of Illyria and Paeonia, and also that his horse had won a competition at the Olympic Games. It is also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, had been burned down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that the fire had occurred because Artemis was away, witnessing Alexander's birth. Such legends may have arisen after Alexander became king and were possibly instigated by himself to show that he was a superhuman and destined for greatness from his conception.

Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great or Alexander the Great, was king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia and a member of the Argead dynasty. Born in Pella in 356 BC, the young prince succeeded his father, King Philip II, to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his years in power on a series of unprecedented military campaigns across Asia and northeast Africa. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to Egypt and northwest India. He died undefeated in battle and is considered one of the most successful military commanders in history. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16. After Philip was assassinated in 336 BC, Alexander succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He had been awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project, leading the Greeks in the conquest of Persia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire, ruling Asia Minor, and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. He broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He then overthrew the Persian king Darius III and conquered Persia in its entirety. At this point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River. Seeking to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea," he invaded India in 326 BC but was forced to turn back by the demands of his troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.

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