Ancient Rus'

Princes often chose even common girls as wives, for if they took boyars' daughters, problems arose: the princess's relatives demanded power for themselves, other boyars were indignant that their daughters had not been taken, and the princess herself was often incompetent and arrogant. Therefore, the prince was not averse to taking some pretty daughter of a priest, a priest, or a merchant.
Virginity was not always a concern for the future husband; such a nuance usually only concerned husbands who were church ministers.

The main musical instruments were the gusli (used to sing epics and tell stories about good fellows), horns (wind instruments used by shepherds in the fields to brighten up their boring lives), balalaikas (used for cheerful ditties), but for the most part people simply sang, sang at home, sang at holidays, sang in church, because Russian life without songs is boring and sad.

When a boy is born into a family, he is swaddled in his father's shirt for the first time (this is a sign that the child will grow up healthy and strong like his father), and a girl is swaddled in her mother's shirt (so that the baby will grow up to be a beauty and a helper).

They went into battle under a red banner, on which the face of the Lord was embroidered; with such banners they went from any principality into any battle, because the principalities did not have coats of arms at that time.

The Orthodox Church permitted a maximum of three marriages for men and women (divorces were not permitted, and a new marriage could only be entered into after the death of a wife or husband, which in the harsh realities of Rus' was not such a rare occurrence).
Respectful terms used in relation to men: sir (to all non-boyars and non-princes), master (only to boyars), knyazhe or knyaz (to a prince).
Respectful forms of address used for women include: madam (for all women who are not young ladies or princesses), missy (for boyars' wives), and princess (for princes' wives). (The term "mistress" wasn't particularly common in Rus', although it could rarely be used for a princess.)

During this period, people began observing church fasts, which were quite compatible with everyday matters. Back then, there were still numerous omens and sayings to deceive evil spirits, as well as hundreds of instructive tales, songs, epics, and legends.
The standard of female beauty back then was a girl who wasn't thin, but also not fat, with large hips, ample breasts, and strong legs (so-called "chicken feet"—a girl with thin, slender ankles—was disliked, as it was believed such a girl would easily die in childbirth, as if on chicken legs). Rosy cheeks, long braids with voluminous hair, black eyebrows, and fair skin were prized. Such suitable girls were called "blood and milk," in short, a little plump in body. But everyone has different tastes; these are just signs; all these visual characteristics meant the girl was completely healthy and would be able to bear an equally healthy child for her husband.

And the standard of a man of that time was a tanned, strong man with a beard (if a man was without a beard, it was considered that he was still a youth and did not yet have the right to vote, therefore, as a punishment for treason, beards were cut off).
For the common people, a prince is a priest, like the head of a Russian family, who will certainly help and protect his righteous people.

A girl could be of marriageable age as early as thirteen, or a little younger (it was considered acceptable to marry five months after her first menstruation). If a girl married after twenty, she was already considered an old maid, having spent too much time under her parents' roof. (This limitation was primarily applicable to boyar and princely girls; peasant girls could marry at an older age without censure, but usually before age 30.)
Men, however, could marry as soon as their beards grew. These restrictions applied to all men, of all social classes.

In Rus', the alcohol is either kvass (fermented from old rye bread), or brashka (made from wheat and oats), or myod (an alcohol made from properly fermented honey).

After the Christianization of Rus' (approximately the late 11th and early 12th centuries), some pagan superstitions, legends, and holidays persisted during this era, as they helped the Orthodox Church gradually gain a foothold in the people's souls. This is why Maslenitsa, a pagan holiday (week of celebration) dedicated to the farewell to winter, is still celebrated peacefully. Thus, the church was able to take root in the Russian land, side by side with past traditions.
The baptism of Rus' also helped it to emerge into the arena of large and respected states and to become friends with Byzantium more than with anyone else, for it was from Byzantium that Rus' adopted Orthodoxy, which became a reason for Byzantium to treat Russians well.
After the Christianization of Rus' and before, at all times, Roma were treated well, but with some caution, because their pagan gods (according to legends, they gave them magical powers). And according to biblical scriptures, it was believed that Roma were allowed to steal without it being considered a sin (because according to the biblical scriptures, a Roma stole one nail that was supposed to be used to nail Christ's feet, but because of the theft, only one nail was nailed into his foot, which lessened Christ's suffering. Therefore, God allowed Roma to steal). Many tales about Roma also circulated in Rus', including that they allegedly stole horses from herds, that Roma brought illnesses to families—in short, they were feared and even respected, rather than oppressed as in Europe.

The Great Silk Road always passed through Rus', and so Arabs, Chinese, Indians, Turks, Greeks, and other peoples were common sights in large cities. This led to a flourishing trade in Rus' (banditry flourished no less than trade). However, because the territory of the Rus' principalities always had a diverse population, their policies differed from those of Europe at the time (the Inquisition, aimed at exterminating Roma and Jews, was just beginning in Europe at the time). Marriages between Russians and foreigners were very rare, however, primarily due to different religions and the language barrier.

The struggle took place not only between the principalities, but also within the Rurik dynasty between the two main branches:

1. The descendants of Vladimir Monomakh (Monomakhovichs) ruled in the Rostov-Suzdal land, Smolensk, and Volyn.
2. The descendants of Oleg Svyatoslavich (the Olgovichi) ruled Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky (Veliky Novgorod). It was to Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, a member of their coalition, that the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" (late 12th century) is dedicated, calling for unity in the face of the Polovtsian threat.
   Well, the place in Kyiv was held firmly, a monolithic transfer of power to one son.
   The result of this system: By the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was a patchwork of powerful, competing lands. This weakened it in the face of a common enemy—the Mongol invasion (1237-1240), which ended this era and established a new, Horde-dominated power over most of the Russian lands.

"What is the Russian land? You ask, child, how our fathers lived? It is not simply the ground beneath our feet. It is a bond of principalities and cities, forged by faith, sword, and blood.
Look: our heart is Kyiv, the city of Kiev, the "mother of Russian cities." There are the golden domes of St. Sophia's Cathedral, there is the metropolitan, there is the throng of Podil, where Greek, Polovtsian, and Varangian can be heard. But now our heart beats unevenly. Princes fight for the Kyivan throne like dogs for a bone. Every year can bring a new lord.
And all around are appanages. Novgorod the Great—rich, daring, its own master; the prince there is kept as a mercenary, not ruled by a dynasty.
The Suzdal land is forested and powerful, where Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky builds churches and stone towers, but does not bow to Kyiv.
Galich, Chernigov, Smolensk... Each with its own character and each one of ours.
Our life? It comes from God and the sword. Faith is our shield and support. We are Orthodox. What does that mean? It means we stand against the Latin Catholics and the pagan Polovtsians. The Church is our comforter and chronicler. Books are written in monasteries, and this is a light in the darkness.
But we never let go of the sword. The Polovtsians are the wind of the steppe, our scourge. Sometimes we trade with them, sometimes rivers of blood flow between us. And then there are the Lithuanians, the Chud, the Volga Bulgars... The border is a constant wound. Therefore, our prince is both judge and commander. His retinue is his strength. We, the boyars, hold council with him, and in battle we lead the way, in heavy armor, under our banners.
The land feeds us. In the forests, there are wild animals and honey from wild bees, in the rivers, fish, in the fields, rye. But don't think we're savages. Our princesses wear Byzantine silks, in our mansions, tiled stoves, at feasts, skald singers compose epics about the old heroes, and in churches, they sing kondakars—such singing would amaze even Constantinople.
Do you remember the old god Perun? Be silent, it's not appropriate here. But our ancestors still remember how his idol stood on the hill. Today's faith is different, but the people's soul remains the same: daring, melancholy, hospitality, and necessity is the mother of invention.
Our main problem is feudal strife. As soon as the Grand Duke dies, his sons divide the land as if it were his inheritance.

3. Novgorod land (Northwest)
   Character: A boyar republic, not a monarchy. The prince here is a hired military commander and judge who could be "showed the way" (exiled). All power rests with the veche (people's assembly) and the boyar council.
   · Feature: Princes were invited from other lands (most often from Vladimir-Suzdal or Chernigov).
   · Famous princes who ruled in Novgorod:
   · Mstislav the Brave (late 12th century) – became famous for his victories over the Lithuanians and Chud.
   · Alexander Nevsky (1236-1252, with interruptions) - although he already belongs to the period of the Mongol yoke, his victories (the Battle of the Neva in 1240, the Battle on the Ice in 1242) are the pinnacle of Novgorod's military glory, when Alexander defeated the Catholics who organized a crusade.
4. Galicia-Volyn Principality (Southwest)
   Character: A wealthy principality with a mild climate and active trade with Europe (Poland, Hungary). A strong, willful nobility.
   · Famous princes:
   Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187) – ruler of Galich. His might was celebrated by the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign": "You sit high upon your gold-forged throne... Your thunderstorms flow across the lands."
   Roman Mstislavich (1199-1205) united Galich and Volyn into a single powerful principality. He fought successfully against the Poles, the Cumans, and even Kiev.
   · Daniil Romanovich Galitsky (1238-1264) - son of Roman, survived the Mongol invasion, was crowned king by the Pope, and played a complex diplomatic game with the West and the Horde.
5. Chernigov and Smolensk principalities
   Chernihiv: An important center, ruled by the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich (the Olgovichi). They often feuded with the Monomakhovichi over Kyiv.
   Smolensk: A key hub on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Ruled by the descendants of Rostislav Mstislavich, the principality was stable and prosperous. No specific names are preserved in the chronicles; it is only known that they reigned there for decades, for long periods, and very productively. Their distance from the border with the Polovtsians made trade very convenient.

1. The Kiev Principality (the formal center of Rus', the "oldest throne")
   · Character: A prestigious land, but no longer the most militarily powerful. A fierce struggle for the Kievan throne ("the throne") raged between various branches of the Rurik dynasty.
   · Famous princes:
   Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) – the last Grand Prince, under whom Rus' was relatively united. A wise ruler and military leader, he authored "The Instruction" to Children.
   · Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) - the son of Monomakh, continued the policy of his father, but after his death the final collapse began.
   · Next comes a series of princes who ruled for short periods: Yaropolk Vladimirovich, Vyacheslav Vladimirovich, Vsevolod Olgovich, and others. Frequent changes of power are a sign of the decline of Kyiv’s importance.
2. Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (North-Eastern Rus')
   Character: A young, dynamically growing principality with a strong princely authority. The economy is based on agriculture, crafts, and trade along the Volga.
   · Famous princes (founders of power):
   Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157) – son of Monomakh, actively fought for Kyiv, but was more famous for strengthening his northern lands. He founded many cities (Kostroma, Pereslavl-Zalessky). He is considered the founder of Moscow (1147).
   Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) – son of Yuri. He moved the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir and built the Assumption Cathedral and the famous Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. He sought to subjugate other principalities (he sacked Kyiv in 1169). He was killed as a result of a boyar conspiracy.
   Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) – Andrei's brother, the peak of the principality's power. He had 12 children (hence his nickname). His authority was recognized by Novgorod, Ryazan, and Chernigov. During his reign, St. Demetrius Cathedral was built in Vladimir.