Important provinces varied by empire, but some were vital by wealth, strategic position, or population.

France (Capetia / Valois) – Normandy: rich, ports, connection with England. – Aquitaine: huge, wines, Atlantic trade. – Flanders: European textile center, rich cities.

England – Kent: gateway to the continent. – Yorkshire: large agricultural and urban production. – Wales Marches: militarised zone against Welsh.

Holy Roman Empire – Bohemia: silver, cities, imperial elector. – Austria: defense against Hungarians and Balkans. – Rhineland: river trade and rich cities.

Byzantine Empire – Anatolia: military and agricultural heartland. – Thrace: direct defense of Constantinople. – Thessaloniki: second city, Balkan trade.

Islamic World – Egypt: grain, wealth, control of the Nile. – Syria: trade routes and ancient cities. – Baghdad: cultural and economic center.

Key provinces were usually: – dense agricultural regions – trade routes– military border areas– wealthy

urban centers They determined the real power of kings much more than titles.

Feudalism was the main form of political, social and military organization in medieval Europe (approx. century. IX–XV). It was not a single, equal system everywhere, but a set of relationships based on land, hierarchy, and personal obligations.

Basic structure

• Rei distributed land to nobles to maintain control of the territory. • These lands were called fiefs — properties or rights granted in exchange for service. ([Wikipedia][1]) • The nobleman who received the land became vassal, swearing loyalty and military support to the lord. ([Medieval Chronicles][2])

A chain was formed:

King → great lords → knights → peasants.

Obligations

• Vassals were to provide soldiers, political advice, and allegiance. • Gentlemen owed protection and economic support to the vassal. • The fief supported the vassal with agricultural income and peasant labor. ([Lords and Ladies][3])

Economic base: the countryside

Society was agrarian. The majority of the population were peasant serfs who farmed the lord's land and paid taxes on labor or production.

This is called lordship/manorialism, the economic basis of feudalism.

Political characteristics

• Decentralized power: kings depended on the nobles to rule and war. • Nobles had local autonomy, their own laws and troops. • Borders and authority varied greatly according to kingdom.

Abstract

Feudalism = land system + personal loyalty + military obligations, sustained by rural economy and power

Medieval battles were not total chaos—they followed relatively predictable tactical patterns.

1. Organization of the army Armies were divided into three parts: vanguard, center, and rear. The commander usually stood in the center with his personal guard. Reserves were common to decide the fight at the critical moment.

2. Types of troops Infantry: army base, formed by spearmen, swordsmen and militias. Archers and crossbowmen: Stayed behind the main line, breaking enemy formations before the clash. Heavy cavalry (cavalrymen): decisive weapon; Used for charges aimed at breaking lines. Light cavalry: reconnaissance, pursuit, and side attacks.

3. Formation and combat Infantry fought in compact blocks, often with shields joined together forming defensive barriers. These formations could withstand mounted loads. ([My Blog][1]) Commanders tried to outflank the enemy, as attacking from the sides or rear could quickly break morale. ([The Insurance Universe][2])

4. Typical phases of battle – Initial exchange of projectiles (arrows, crossbows) – Infantry advance and hand-to-hand clash– Cavalry charge at the decisive moment– Breakdown of morale → flight → massacre in retreat

Most of the time, battles were won not by extermination, but by panic and collapse of the enemy formation.

5. Sieges The most common form of warfare. Castles and cities were surrounded to cut off supplies. They could last for months or years. Machines such as siege towers, battering rams, and catapults were used, but starvation and disease were the primary weapons.

Abstract: Medieval warfare depended more on discipline, morale, and terrain position than on raw numbers. Whoever broke the enemy formation first usually

The Holy Roman Empire in 1336 was not a unified state, but an extremely fragmented feudal confederation in central Europe.

Political structure The emperor was elected by prince-electors and ruled more by prestige than by direct authority. Royal power was in the hands of dukes, bishops, free cities, and territorial princes. The empire functioned as a hierarchy of feudal loyalties, not as a centralized government.

Approximate territory Included: – Germany (political core) – Austria and Bohemia – northern imperial Italy– parts of present-day Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, and eastern France

But these regions were composed of hundreds of quasi-independent entities.

Institutions – Emperor: limited symbolic and military authority– Imperial Diet: assembly of princes and cities – Church: enormous political power (bishops were princes) – Imperial free cities: autonomous trading centers Situation in 1336 The empire was under the Luxembourg dynasty, with strong internal dispute between noble houses. Imperial authority weakened while local principalities strengthened. This made the empire more of a common legal order than a state.

Nature of the empire It was neither "Roman" territorially nor "Germanic" unified. It was a hybrid medieval structure that maintained the idea of a universal Christian empire, but in practice functioned as a decentralized feudal federation.

East–West relationship (c. 1300–1350)

• Permanent religious schism: Since the break between Rome and Constantinople in 1054, the division between the Latin and Orthodox Churches had structured politics. The pope viewed the Oriental Rome emperor as the Eastern ruler, not as the legitimate "Roman emperor," while the Oriental Rome considered the West to be heretical and culturally inferior.

• Memory of the Fourth Crusade: The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders destroyed trust between them. Even after the Oriental Rome restoration in 1261, the emperors saw Venice, Genoa, and the papacy as existential threats.

• Economic dependence on the West: by the fourteenth century, the Oriental Rome Empire was weakened and depended on Italian maritime republics, most notably the Republic of Venice** and Republic of Genoa, which controlled much of the trade and had autonomous quarters in Constantinople.

• Pragmatic diplomacy: Despite the religious rivalry, there were political alliances. Byzantine emperors sought military support in the West against Turks and Bulgarians, offering temporary ecclesiastical unions or dynastic marriages.

• Ottoman rise as a common factor: the advance of the Turks into Anatolia partially brought Oriental Rome closer to the West. The empire tried to present itself as an Eastern Oriental Rome bastion for help, but the West responded little, divided by its own wars (such as the Hundred Years' War).

Abstract: The East-West relationship in the fourteenth century was one of religious hostility, commercial competition, and occasional political cooperation—a coexistence marked more by distrust than by Christian unity.

Byzantine trade in the fourteenth century revolved around the strategic position of Constantinople, which linked Europe, Asia, and the Mediterranean. The empire acted more as an intermediary than as a producer.

1. Role of Constantinople The capital was one of the largest trading centers in the medieval world. Routes from the Black Sea, Central Asia, Anatolia, the Levant and Balkan Europe passed through it. Goods were taxed, stored and redistributed, generating revenue for the State.

2. Relations with Italians By the 14th century, Byzantine maritime trade was largely dominated by Italian cities such as the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. The Genoese controlled the Galata neighborhood of Constantinople and the Black Sea routes; Venetians dominated routes from the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. The empire granted trading privileges in exchange for naval and financial support.

3. Main trade routes

• Black Sea: wheat, slaves, furs, honey, wax, and wood from the Crimea and steppes.
• Middle East: spices, silk, sugar and fabrics from Persia, India and Egypt.
• Balkans: metals, wood, salt, and livestock.
• Western Europe: luxury fabrics, silver coins, and weapons.

4. Byzantine products exported The empire mainly sold:

• refined silk and luxury fabrics* wine and olive oil
• urban handicrafts* stable coins used in international

trade5. Economic problems After the thirteenth century, the empire lost control of maritime trade to Italians, reduced domestic production, and began to depend on port taxes. This weakened the economy and political power.

The result: Byzantium was still a vital commercial center, but it already functioned more as a bridge of global trade than as an autonomous economic power.

The Oriental Rome Empire in 1336 was a highly centralized imperial monarchy, direct heir to the Roman model.

Emperor (Basileus) The emperor was absolute sovereign: head of state, army, justice and defender of the faith. His authority was seen as God-given. There was no modern separation of powers. He legislated by decree, appointed governors, generals and high officials.

Central administration The government was extremely bureaucratic. Civil servants administered finance, justice, taxes, and diplomacy. Many positions were technical and lifelong, forming a professional administrative elite inherited from the Roman tradition. The imperial treasury controlled the collection, based on taxes on land, commerce and cities.

Provinces The territory was divided into provinces ruled by imperial officials. These governors had both civil and military functions, but they depended directly on the emperor. In the fourteenth century, with the weakening of the empire, local aristocrats and military commanders gained practical autonomy.

Church and State The emperor strongly influenced the Orthodox Church and appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople. This model is called Caesaropapism: Church and State united, but with imperial supremacy.

Political elite Royal power was disputed between:

• the imperial family* great military aristocrats* court bureaucrats* provincial

generals Palace coups, usurpations, and civil wars were common, as legitimacy depended on both strength and lineage.

Situation in 1336 The empire was weakened, with territory reduced to the Balkans and parts of Greece. The government was still formally centralized, but in practice it depended on alliances with nobles, cities, and mercenaries.

---

🌍 World in 1336 – overview

👑 Europe

• The Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England were on the brink of the Hundred Years' War.
• The Holy Roman Empire** was huge, but politically fragmented.
• Rich and urban Italy, dominated by cities such as Venice.
• Iberia still divided between Christian kingdoms and the Emirate of Granada.

👉 Europe was growing economically, but politically unstable.

---

🕌 Middle East and North Africa

• The Mamluk Sultanate dominated Egypt and the Levant.
• The Ottoman Empire was beginning to emerge as a new power.
• The Islamic world was rich and urban, but fragmented.

👉 The region was still the commercial center between Asia and Europe.

---

🐎 Central

Asia* Mongol states such as the Chagatai Khanate controlled routes of the Silk Road.

• Trade existed, but with political instability.

👉 The region functioned as a bridge between China, India and Europe.

---

🐉 China and East

Asia

• China was under the Yuan Dynasty, rich, technological, and populous.
• Southeast Asia dominated by maritime empires such as the Majapahit Empire.

👉 Asia was the true economic center of the world.

---

⚔️ Technology and global

society* Chivalry and castles dominated wars in Europe

• Gunpowder began to appear in sieges
• Great trade routes linked China to the Mediterranean
• Religion shaped politics in all regions

---

🌍 Conclusion – the world in 1336

👉 Europe: Militarily aggressive and expanding 👉 Middle East: Commercial and cultural 👉 bridge Asia: Richer, more urban, and more technological 👉 Active but vulnerable intercontinental trade

In 1336, China and Southeast Asia were under great empires, with intense maritime trade and important political changes.

---

🐉 China in 1336

China was ruled by the Yuan Dynasty, founded by the Mongols of Kublai Khan.

Internal

situation* Mongol emperors ruled over a mostly Chinese population.

• There were economic crises, peasant revolts and famine.
• Corruption and internal disputes weakened the regime.

These tensions would lead a few decades later to the fall of the dynasty and the rise of the Ming (1368).

Economy and trade

China was the largest technological center in the world:

• production of silk, porcelain and paper
• advanced use of gunpowder
• large cities and trade

channels Chinese ports participated in Asian maritime trade.

---

#🌊 Southeast Asia

The region was dominated by maritime trading kingdoms.

🌴 Important

empires* Majapahit Empire – naval power that dominated parts of Indonesia and trade routes.

• Kingdom of Sukhothai – important state of present-day Thailand.
• Khmer Empire – already in decline, but still influential in the Cambodia region.

---

⚓ Asian

trade Southeast Asia was the bridge between China, India, and the Islamic world:

• spices (cloves, nutmeg, pepper)
• Chinese silk* Indian textiles
• metals and ceramics

Arab, Indian, and Chinese merchants constantly sailed through the region.

---

🌍 General situation in 1336

• Rich but unstable Mongol China* Southeast Asia dominated by maritime kingdoms
• Asian oceanic trade more active than European
• Gunpowder, compass, and advanced navigation already widespread

In 1336, Central Asia was still deeply marked by the legacy of the Mongol Empire, but was already fragmented into several rival khanates and unstable trade routes.

---

🐎 Heir states of the Mongols

🏹 Chagatai Khanate The main power in the region was the Chagatai

Khanate, which controlled much of present-day Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Xinjiang. It was ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan, but suffered from constant internal disputes between nomadic leaders and urban Islamic elites.

This khanate dominated key Silk Road cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara.

---

🐎 Influence of the Golden Horde

To the north, the Golden Horde still controlled the steppes of Russia and western Kazakhstan. It influenced the trade and politics of the caravan routes that connected Europe to Asia.

---

🕌 Islamization of the region

In the fourteenth century, Central Asia was undergoing strong Islamization:

• urban elites were Muslim
• commercial cities had madrassas and cultural centers* Mongol rulers adopted Islam to legitimize power

This fusion created an Islamic ** Turko-Mongol culture**, the basis of future empires.

---

⚔️ Political

instability The region was rich but unstable:

• trade routes depended on the safety of caravans
• conflicts between nomadic clans and merchant cities were frequent
• various local leaders vied for power

A few years later, a decisive conqueror would emerge: Tamerlane, who would begin to form an empire from this instability.

---

🌍 General situation of Central Asia in 1336

• Mongol heirs still dominated
• active but insecure Silk Road trade* expanding Islamic culture* fertile ground for new conquerors

---

👑 # Great families of Europe

🇫🇷 France and its surroundings

• House of Valois – French ruling dynasty with Philip VI, initiator of the Hundred Years' War.
• House Plantagenet – kings of England, including Edward III.
• House of Burgundy – powerful French feudal lineage.

---

🇩🇪 Central

Europe* House of Luxembourg – controlled Bohemia and disputed the imperial throne.

• House of Wittelsbach – family of the emperor Louis IV.
• House of Habsburg – still on the rise, it dominated Austria.

---

🇮🇹 Italy and the Mediterranean

• House of Anjou – ruled the Kingdom of Naples.
• Medici family – beginning to gain economic power in Florence.
• Doria family – important naval lineage of Genoa.

---

🇪🇸 Iberian

Peninsula

• House of Trastámara – future ruling dynasty of Castile and Aragon.
• Portuguese House of Burgundy – reigning in Portugal.

---

🕌 Families of the Middle East and Islamic

world### 🇪🇬 Egypt and the Levant

• Bahri dynasty – Mamluk elite that ruled Egypt and Syria.

---

🇮🇷 Persia and Mongol

region* Ilkhanid dynasty – rulers of the Ilkhanate, still influential despite the collapse.

• House Jalayirida – one of the families that would emerge after the Mongol fragmentation.

---

🐎 Anatolia

• House of Osman – founding lineage of the Ottoman Empire, still small but rapidly rising.

---

🌍 Big picture

• Europe: power concentrated in hereditary dynastic houses
• Italy: wealthy urban families competing with nobles
• Middle East: military elites and Turko-Mongol dynasties dominating
• Ottomans emerging as future superpower

---

In 1336, the political situation between Kingdom of France and Kingdom of England was extremely tense and about to explode into the Hundred Years' War (which would begin in 1337).

---

👑 The origin of the conflict

It all started with a French succession crisis.

King Charles IV of France died without a male heir in 1328. The throne was given to Philip VI of Valois, cousin of the king.

But the English king Edward III of England was the grandson of the previous French king and claimed to have a greater claim to the throne.

The French rejected the claim on the basis of the Salic Law (which prevented inheritance on the female side).

---

🏰 The Aquitaine

Question England still owned land in France, especially Aquitaine.

This created an absurd situation:

• the English king was sovereign in England
• but the French king's vassal for his French territories Philip VI began to pressure Edward III, threatening to confiscate these lands.

---

⚔️ The breaking point (1336)

In 1336:

• France attempts to weaken English influence in Flanders (England's allied region)
• England prepares alliances with Flemish nobles and cities
• Edward III begins to officially use the title of King of France

The war had not yet formally begun, but diplomacy had already failed.

---

🌍 General situation in 1336

• open dynastic rivalry* territorial disputes in France
• economic tension (English wool trade with Flanders)
• military alliances being formed

👉 In practical terms: war was already inevitable.

🌏 # Silk Road (14th century)

The Silk Road was still operating, but no longer at its Mongol peak.

Situation in 1336

• Goods came from China and India to the Middle East.
• They passed through territories of the Golden Horde and the collapsing Ilkhanate.
• They reached the Mediterranean through Syrian and Egyptian cities under the Mamluk Sultanate.

Products transported

• silk, porcelain, spices, gunpowder, paper
• horses, metals, European fabrics in the opposite way Despite the wars, the trade network still connected Europe and Asia.

---

⚓ Trade in the Mediterranean

The Mediterranean was the economic center of the Western world.

Maritime powers* Venice – dominated routes to the East and Byzantium

• Genoa – fort on the Black Sea and trade with Mongols

They bought spices and silk from the East and resold them in Europe.

Main routes

• Alexandria → Venice
• Constantinople → Genoa
• Black Sea → Italy → central

Europe These routes made Italy the richest region in Europe.

---

⚔️ Military technology in 1336

🏹 Traditional weapons still dominant

• heavy knights with spear and sword
• long archers (especially English)
• crossbows (common in Italy and France)
• walls, castles, and siege towers Warfare was still feudal and based on nobles and mercenary infantry.

---

💥 Technological

news Gunpowder already existed, coming from China.

First firearms

• rudimentary cannons in fortresses
• heavy bombards used in sieges
• still inaccurate, but psychologically devastating

wealthy states such as France, England, and Italian cities were beginning to experiment with these weapons.

---

🌍 Summary of the world in 1336

• global trade linked China to the Mediterranean
• Italian cities dominated the European economy* knights still reigned on the battlefields

---

🐎 Anatolia: End of the Seljuk Turks and Ottoman

Rise The region's former power, the Sultanate of Rum**, had already fragmented into several small Turkish beyliks.

Among them, the most important was the nascent Ottoman Empire, ruled by Orhan Gazi. The Ottomans already controlled parts of northwestern Anatolia and were beginning to cross into Europe, threatening the Byzantine Empire.

Other smaller beyliks existed, but none rivaled the Ottomans.

---

🕌 Middle East: Mamluk rule and Islamic

states The greatest power in the region was the Mamluk Sultanate, with its capital in Cairo. It controlled:

• Egypt
• Syria
• Palestine
• holy cities of Mecca and Medina

The Mamluks had defeated Crusaders and Mongols, being the protectors of Sunni Islam.

---

🐎 Remnants of Mongol

power Further east was the Ilkhanate, a Mongol state in Persia and Iraq. However, by 1336 it was already collapsing, fragmenting into small local kingdoms.

This created political instability in Mesopotamia and Iran.

---

🌍 General situation in 1336

• Ottomans emerging as new power
• Byzantium weakened between Turks and Latins* Mamluks dominating the Arab Middle East* Mongol states of Persia dissolving

By 1336, southern Europe was dominated by three major political zones: fragmented Italy, the Byzantine Balkans, and the Mediterranean world.

🇮🇹 Italy: mosaic of cities and kingdoms

The Italian peninsula was not unified. There were several powers:

• Kingdom of Naples – ruled by French dynasties, dominated the south.
• Venice – naval and commercial power in the eastern Mediterranean.
• Genoa – Venice's rival in maritime trade.
• Florence – rich banking and mercantile republic.

The pope did not live in Rome, but in Avignon, which weakened papal authority in Italy.

---

🏛️ Byzantine Empire and the Turkish

advance The Byzantine Empire*[**] still existed, but much reduced, basically centered on Constantinople and parts of Greece.

At the same time, the Ottoman Turks were growing rapidly under the Ottoman Empire, conquering territories in Anatolia and beginning to cross into Europe.

---

⚔️ Fragmented Balkans

The Balkan region was divided between several states:

• Serbian Empire, at its height under Stefan Dušan.
• Second Bulgarian Empire, already weakened.
• Greek territories divided between Byzantines, Latins and local lords.

---

🌍 General situation of southern Europe in 1336

• Wealthy, urban, and politically fragmented Italy* Weakened Byzantium, surrounded by Turks
• Dominant Serbia in the Balkans
• Mediterranean trade controlled by Italian

cities

By 1336, Eastern Europe was a region of shifting borders, large emerging kingdoms### 👑 Main power: Poland–Lithuania (in formation)

The Kingdom of Poland had been reunified and grew under Casimir III of Poland. To the east was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a huge pagan state that controlled territories of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. Both were not yet united, but they were already rivals of the Teutonic Order.

---

⚔️ Germanic

military order To the north of the Baltic dominated the Teutonic Order, a Germanic Christian military state. It controlled Prussia and fought Lithuanians and Poles in Baltic crusades.

---

🐎 Mongol

influence Much of Russia was under the influence of the Golden Horde, heir to the empire of Genghis Khan. Russian principalities (such as Moscow and Tver) paid tribute to the Mongols.

The rising principality was Moscow, beginning to gain political strength.

---

👑 South and the Balkans

• Kingdom of Hungary – influential regional power in the Balkans.
• Second Bulgarian Empire – weakened by internal conflicts.
• Byzantine Empire – reduced to Constantinople and its environs.
• Serbs grew under Stephen Dušan**, forming a powerful Balkan empire.

---

🌍 General situation in the East in 1336

• Poland and Lithuania on the rise
• Mongols still dominating Russia
• Hungary influential in the Balkans
• Byzantium weak and surrounded
• Serbia at territorial

peak

👑 Most powerful kingdom: France

The Kingdom of France was the largest state in Western Europe. However, there were still semi-autonomous duchies such as Burgundy and Brittany. France was on the brink of the Hundred Years' War against England.

---

🦁 England and its territories

The Kingdom of England, under Edward III of England, controlled:

• England
• Wales
• possessions in France (especially Gascony/Aquitaine)

Edward III claimed the French throne, which would soon lead to war.

---

⚜️ Divided

Iberian Peninsula The region was fragmented between Christian kingdoms and the last Muslim state:

• Kingdom of Castile – the largest and most powerful.
• Kingdom of Aragon – maritime power in the Mediterranean.
• Kingdom of Portugal – already independent and stable.
• Emirate of Granada – last Islamic territory in Spain.

The Reconquista was not yet over.

---

⛪ Religious

power The papacy lived through the Avignon period: the pope resided in Avignon, under strong French influence. This weakened the universal authority of the Church and created political tensions.

---

🌍 General situation of Western Europe in 1336

• Monarchies stronger than in central Europe
• Urban and commercial growth* Tensions between France and England about to explode
• Iberia still in religious war

🛡️ The center of power: Holy Roman Empire

The largest entity was the Holy Roman Empire, which covered much of present-day Germany, Austria, Czechia, northern Italy, and parts of eastern Poland and France. It was not a unified state: it was a feudal confederation with hundreds of duchies, bishoprics, and free cities. The emperor in 1336 was Louis IV of Bavaria, whose royal power depended on the loyalty of the princes.

🏰 Major regions within the Empire

• Bavaria – large duchy in the south, base of the emperor.
• Bohemia – powerful kingdom ruled by the Luxembourg dynasty, with its capital in Prague.
• Austria – growing dominance of the Habsburgs, not yet hegemonic.
• Saxony and Brandenburg – important northern territories.

👑 Influential neighboring kingdoms* To the

west: Kingdom of France, already centralized and powerful.

• To the north: Kingdom of Denmark, controlling parts of the Baltic.
• To the east: Kingdom of Poland, recently reunified.
• To the southeast: Kingdom of Hungary, a regional power that influenced the Balkans.

⚔️ General situation

Central Europe was politically unstable, marked by dynastic rivalries, wealthy autonomous cities, and disputes between emperor and nobles. It was a feudal world, growing urban, but far from the centralization of modern states.